/v     /; 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/denglerslessonseOOdengrich 


DENGLER'S 


■>    »  » ■»    1 


» »    ■»  >  J 


LESSONS  AND  EXERCISES 

IN 

ENGLISH 

BY 

WALTER  E.  DENGLER,  M.E. 


INTRODUCTION 

by  Doctor  Philips,  Principal  State  Normal  School, 
West  Chester,  Pa. 


THE  H.  M.  ROWE  COMPANY 

HARLEM  SQUARE 

BALTIMORE,  MD. 


Copyright  1914 
BY  H.  M.  RowE  Co. 


COMPOSED  AND  PRINTED  AT  THF, 

WAVERLY  PRESS 
By  the  Wiluams  &  Wilkins  Company 
Baotimore,  U.  S.  a. 


PREFACE 

The  lessons-and  exercises  of  this  book  are  the  result  of 
eighteen  years'  teaching  of  Enghsh  by  the  author  in  pubHc 
and  private  schools  of  grammar  and  high  school  grades.  The 
inability  of  the  author  to  obtain  a  Grammar  book  that  was  suited 
to  the  needs  of  his  classes  caused  him  to  write  the  following 
book  in  which  he  embodies  a  choice  of  subject  matter  that  is 
sensible  and  follows  a  method  of  presentation  that  differs 
greatly  from  that  of  most  grammars. 

Any  effective  presentation  of  English  grammar  involves 
the  sensible  selection  of  subject  matter  and  the  intelligent 
arrangement  of  this  material.  Subject  Matter  and  Method  are 
the  vital  elements. 

SUBJECT  MATTER 

The  author  believes  that  the  first  essential  in  the  teach- 
ing of  correct  expression  of  thought,  is  to  create  in  the  mind 
of  the  student  the  sentence-sense;  consequently,  in  the  first 
lessons  of  this  book,  the  sentence  is  made  the  subject  of  study. 
By  analysis,  the  characteristics  of  each  kind  of  sentence  are 
taught.  Because  speaking  and  writing,  however,  are  synthetic, 
each  exercise  in  analysis  is  followed  by  an  exercise  in  the  con- 
structing of  sentences.  As  the  different  kinds  of  sentences  are 
developed,  the  punctuation  of  each  kind  of  sentence  is  taught. 

In  selecting  the  subject  matter,  the  author  has  endeavored 
to  treat  fully  the  essentials  and  to  omit  the  non-essentials. 

The  book  contains  abundant  exercises  so  that  the  gather- 
ing of  supplementary  material  is  reduced  to  the  minimum. 
The  author,  however,  believes  in  the  use  of  well  selected  sup- 
plementary work.  ^  -.  ^ 


IV  PREFACE 

The  vocabulary  building  exercises  of  the  book,  which  re- 
quire the  student  to  select  the  correct  word  to  be  used  in  a  given 
sentence,  develop  the  language  judgment  of  the  student  and, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  author,  meet  an  imperative  necessity  in 
our  teaching  of  English. 

METHOD 

Every  technical  term  used  in  this  book  is  developed  logi- 
cally and  defined  clearly  before  it  is  used. 

The  structure  of  sentences  and  the  different  grammatical 
constructions  are  taught  by  example  and  analysis.  Every 
lesson  is  followed  by  an  exercise  that  is  constructive  or  svnthetic. 
The  student  is  made  to  understand  correct  expression  and 
then  is  aided  by  abundant  exercises  to  form  the  habit  of  correct 
speech. 

By  comparison,  errors  of  construction  and  expression  are 
treated  fully  and  carefully  with  the  purpose  of  correcting  the 
source  of  error — teaching  the  principle  that  is  violated. 

In  preparing  these  lessons  and  exercises,  the  author  did 
not  have  in  mind  an  ideal  student,  coming  from  an  ideal  home, 
attending  an  ideal  school.  He  did  try  to  provide  for  the  wants 
of  the  real  boy  and  girl  of  flesh  and  blood  coming  from  the 
representative  American  home,  attending  the  representative 
American  school. 

The  author  has  not  sacrificed  the  meat  for  the  sugar  coat- 
ing, nor  has  he  substituted  the  shadow  for  the  substance.  He 
has  striven  to  write  a  sane,  simple  and  sensible  English 
Grammar. 

These  lessons  and  exercises  have  been  ''tried  out"  many 
times  in  the  classroom  before  appearing  in  this  book.  In  the 
hands  of  the  teacher  who  has  a  reasonable  interest  in  his  subject 
and  a  reasonable  enthusiasm  for  his  work,  tlie  author  knows 
that  the  following  lessons  and  exercises  are  teachable,  efficient, 
and  result-getting. 

Philadelphia,  W.  E.  D. 

April  22,  1914. 


INTRODUCTION 

The  publishers^  shelves  are  full  of  English  grammars,  and 
a  new  book  on  Grammar  must  have  a  reason  for  its  being.  I 
believe  that  this  book  has  such  a  reason. 

It  is  not  a  book  of  language  lessons,  although  its  aim  is  to 
give  students  a  better  use  of  the  English  language.  It  suggests, 
and  indeed  requires,  a  large  amount  of  original  work  in  com- 
position, the  most  important  work  which  a  grammar  can  do; 
and  I  believe  that  this  will  be  found  to  be  done  in  an  unusually 
intelligent  way.  Its  large  numbers  of  fresh  and  everyday 
illustrations  will  appeal  to  teachers.  It  leads  up  to  definitions 
by  simple  and  natural  steps,  and  at  the  end  of  each  section 
repeats  these  definitions  so  as  to  bring  them  together  and  im- 
press them  upon  the  mind  of  the  student  after  he  has  learned 
their  meaning  and  their  use.  The  careful  drill  in  distinguish- 
ing between  the  use  of  words  often  mistaken  for  each  other  is 
an  important  feature,  and  the  large  amount  of  space  given  to  it 
is  wisely  used. 

James  Russell  Lowell  saj'S  somewhere  that  the  great  art 
of  writing  is  to  know  what  to  leave  in  the  inkstand,  which  wise 
suggestion  the  makers  of  modern  grammars  seem  too  often  to 
have  forgotten.  A  large  amount  of  details  with  many  fine 
distinctions  encumber  many  text-books  on  this  subject,  waste 
the  student's  time,  and  prevent  many  students  from  getting 
a  real  grip  on  the  subject.  There  is  a  science  of  grammar,  and 
it  is  an  important  science,  but  it  does  not  belong  to  the  ordinary 
school  nor  does  the  ordinary  student  need  it.  This  book,  it 
seems  to  me,  to  an  unusual  and  wise  extent,  omits  the  unneces- 
sary detail  and  gives  its  space  to  the  essentials,  and  the  student's 


"Vl  INTRODUCTION 

time  to  useful  drill.  I  belive  that  there  is  a  place  for  it,  and 
that  it  will  find  this  place,  and  will  be  heartily  welcomed  by- 
many  teachers. 

G.  M.  PHILIPS, 
State  Normal  School,  West  Chester,  Pa. 
April  16,  1914. 


CONTENTS 

Preface iii 

Introduction v 

Lesson    1.  The  Declarative  Sentence 9 

Lesson    2.  The  Interrogative  Sentence 12 

Lesson    3.  Imperative  and  Exclamatory  Sentences 14 

Lesson    4.  Modifying  Element 16 

Lesson    5.  The  Simple  Sentence 18 

Lesson    6.  The  Complex  Sentence 21 

Lesson    7.  The  Compound  Sentence 23 

Lesson    8.  Parts  of  Speech 28 

Lesson    9.  Capitalization  of  Proper  Nouns 32 

Lesson  10.  Nouns  Sometimes  Misused 36 

Lesson  11.  Nouns  Sometimes  Misused — Continued 40 

Lesson  12.  Nouns  Sometimes  IMisused — Continued 43 

Lesson  13.  Nouns  Sometimes  ]\Iisused — Continued 47 

Lesson  14.  Nouns  Sometimes  Misused — Continued 50 

Lesson  15.  Nouns  Sometimes  Misused — Continued 54 

Lesson  16.  Pronouns , 57 

Lesson  17.  Adjectives 62 

Lesson  18.  Adjectives  Sometimes  Misused 67 

Lesson  19.  Adjectives  Sometimes  Misused — Continued 71 

Lesson  20.  Adjectives  Sometimes  Misused — Continued 74 

Lesson  21.  Verbs 79 

Lesson  22,  Verbs  Sometimes  Misused 83 

Lesson  23.  Verbs  Sometimes  Misused — Continued 86 

Lesson  24.  Verbs  Sometimes  Misused — Continued 90 

Lesson  25.  Adverbs 94 

Lesson  26.  Adverbs  Frequently  Misused 98 

Lesson  27.  Adjectives  and  Adverbs 103 

Lesson  28.  Prepositions 106 

Lesson  29.  Prepositions — Continued 110 

Lesson  30.  Prepositions — Continued 116 

Lesson  31.  Prepositions — Continued 120 

Lesson  32.  Conjunctions 122 

Lesson  33.  Conjunctions — Continued 125 

vii 


Vlll 


CONTENTS 


Lesson  34. 
Lesson  35. 
Lesson  36. 
Lesson  37. 
Lesson  38. 
Lesson  39. 
Lesson  40. 
Lesson  41. 
Lesson  42. 
Lesson  43. 
Lesson  44. 
Lesson  45. 
Lesson  46. 
Lesson  47. 
Lesson  48. 
Lesson  49. 
Lesson  50. 
Lesson  5L 
Lesson  52. 
Lesson  53. 
Lesson  54. 
Lesson  55. 
Lesson  56. 
Lesson  57. 
Lesson  58. 
Lesson  59. 
Lesson  60. 
Lesson  6L 
Lesson  62. 
Lesson  63. 
Lesson  64. 
Lesson  65. 
Lesson  66. 
Lesson  67. 
Lesson  68. 
Lesson  69. 
Lesson  70. 
Lesson  71. 
Lesson  72. 
Lesson  73. 
Lesson  74, 


nterjections 128 

nflection  of  Kouns 133 

nflection  of  Kouns — Continued 134 

nflection  of  Nouns — Continued 136 

nflection  of  Nouns — Continued 140 

nflection  of  Nouns — Continued 141 

nflection  of  Nouns — Continued 143 

nflection  of  Nouns — Continued 145 

nflection  of  Pronouns 149 

nflection  of  Pronouns — Continued 152 

nflection  of  Pronouns — Continued 158 

nflection  of  Verbs 161 

nflection  of  Verbs — Continued 168 

nflection  of  Verbs — Continued 173 

nflection  of  Verbs — Continued 175 

nflection  of  Verbs — Continued 185 

nflection  of  Verbs — Continued 187 

nflection  of  Verbs — Continued 191 

nflection  of  Verbs — Continued 194 

nflection  of  "\"erbs — Continued 197 

nflection  of  Verbs — Continued 202 

nflection  of  Verbs — Continued 207 

nflection  of  Verbs — Continued 209 

nflection  of  Verbs — Continued 211 

nflection  of  Verbs — Continued 213 

nflection  of  Verbs — Continued 225 

nflection  of  Adjectives 230 

nflection  of  Adjectives— Continued 234 

nflection  of  Adverbs 236 

Different  Uses  of  Some  of  the  Parts  of  Speech 237 

Dependent  Clauses 239 

Dependent  Clauses — Continued 241 

Dependent  Clauses — Continued 243 

Punctuation 246 

Punctuation — Continued 249 

Punctuation — Continued 251 

Punctuation — Continued 253 

Punctuation — Continued 257 

Punctuation — Continued 260 

Punctuation — ^Continued 271 

Punctuation— Continued 275 


LESSON  1 

THE  DECLARATIVE  SENTENCE 

Every  complete  expression  of  thought  in  words  either 
affirms  or  denies  something. 

In  expressing  the  thought,  we  must  have  words  to  repre- 
sent that  concerning  which  the  affirmation  or  denial  is  made, 
and  words  to  express  the  affirmation  or  denial. 

In  the  expression,  ''Knowledge  is  power,"  "Knowledge" 
names  that  concerning  which  something  is  affirmed  and  is 
called  the  subject  idea  or  simply  the  subject. 

The  words,  ''is  power,"  affirm  something  concerning  the 
subject  and,  therefore,  form  the  'predicate. 

A  group  of  related  words,  containing  a  subject  and  a  predi- 
cate and  asserting  that  something  is  true  or  not  true,  is  a  declara- 
tive sentence. 

We  see  that  the  two  essential  elements  or  parts  of  a 
sentence  are  the  subject  and  the  predicate. 

In  the  declarative  sentence,  the  subject  is  that  part  of  the 
sentence  about  which  the  predicate  affirms  or  denies  something; 
the  predicate  is  that  part  which  affirms  or  denies  something 
of  the  subject. 

The  subject  usually  precedes  the  predicate;  but  the  order 
is  sometimes  changed  so  that  the  predicate  precedes  the  sub- 
ject, as  in  the  sentence,  ''Fallen,  fallen  is  Babylon." 

Not  position  in  the  sentence,  but  rneaning  and  use  deter- 
mine which  part  of  the  sentence  constitutes  the  subject  and 
which  part,  the  predicate. 

When  spoken,  the  inflection  of  the  voice  shows  differences 
in  the  meanings  of  sentences;   but   when   ^\Titten,  marks   of 

9 


10 


LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 


punctuatiqri  aj6  used  to  indicate  to  the  reader  the  differences 
in  meaning. 

Punctuation. — A  period  (.)  should  follow  every  declara- 
tive sentence. 

EXERCISE  1 

Divide  a  page  into  two  parallel  columns  and  write  in  one 
column  all  the  subjects,  and  in  the  other  all  the  predicates  of 
the  following  sentences,  as  suggested  by  model  given  below. 

The  cows  are  in  the  corn. 


SUBJECT 


The  cows 

1.  Milton  was  a  poet. 

2.  The  Romans  built  ships. 

3.  Bees  collect  honey. 

4.  The  king  was  a  tyrant. 

5.  They  found  the  journey  long. 

6.  The  problem  seems  easy. 

7.  The  dish  is  old-fashioned. 

8.  The  rain  refreshes  the  grass 

and  flowers. 

9.  We  attended  the  lecture. 

10.  The  house  is  red. 

11.  Gold  glitters. 

12.  The  people  elected  him  presi- 

dent. 

13.  Napoleon  died  in  exile. 

14.  The  ant  is  industrious. 

15.  The  men  were  prisoners. 

16.  The    English    conquered    the 

French. 

17.  Disease  made  the  man  poor. 

18.  Frost  makes  the  leaves  yellow. 


PREDICATE 


are  in  the  corn 

19.  Mr.  Jones  owns  a  yacht. 

20.  Benjamin   Franklin    invented 

the  lightning-rod. 

21.  The   sea    is    fascinating    and 

treacherous. 

22.  They  call  the  town  Bellevue. 

23.  They  crowned  Edward  King. 

24.  The  ocean  appears  blue. 

25.  Slang  is  vulgar. 

26.  A   light  was    burning   in   the 

house. 

27.  He  has  lost  his  book. 

28.  The  sun  sets  in  the  west. 

29.  The  clock  has  stopped. 

30.  The  work  is  done. 

31.  Mr.  Smith  has  lost  his  money 

32.  The  horse  has  broken  loose. 

33.  The  man  lost  his  way. 

34.  The  mast  has  fallen  overboard. 

35.  The  industrious  boy  will  suc- 

ceed. 


Supply  subjects  for  the  following  predicat(\s  and  indicate 
each  as  suggested  below. 

Example. were  an  ancient  people. 

The  Egyptians  were  an  ancient  people. 


THE  DECLARATIVE  SENTENCE  11 


SUBJECT 


PREDICATE 


The  Egyptians  |       were  an  ancient  people. 

1.  was  a  great  general. 

2.  shade  the  streets. 

3.  are  found  in  the  woods. 

4.  is  a  beautiful  poem. 

5. was  very  neatly  written. 

6.  is  the  President  of  the  United  States, 

7.  are  buzzing. 

8.  are  chirping. 

9.  are  croaking. 

10.  laid  the  wall. 

11.  built  the  house. 

12.  — made  the  furniture. 

13.  — ■ — — ■ — was  a  great  commander. 

14.  • — ■ — ■ — — ^grow  in  a  conservatory. 

15.  • — ■ — float  in  with  the  tide. 

Write  predicates  of  more  than  one  word  for  the  following 
subjects  and  indicate  each  as  suggested  by  model. 
Example. — The  birds. 
The  birds  sing  sweetly. 


SUBJECT 

PREDICATE 

The  birds 

sing  sweetly 

1. 

The  mountains 

9. 

Kindness 

2. 

Benjamin  Franklin 

10. 

Honesty 

3. 

Columbus 

11. 

My  photograph 

4. 

A  looking-glass 

12. 

The  owl 

5. 

Drops  of  water 

13. 

The  ant 

6. 

A  boat  on  the  lake 

14. 

The  Chinese 

7. 

Huge  waves 

15. 

Hie  United  States 

8. 

Anger 

12  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

LESSON  2 
THE  INTERROGATIVE  SENTENCE 

The  word  sentence  has  a  broader  use,  however,  than  a  com- 
plete expression  of  thought  in  words. 

In  the  sentence,  *'Does  he  study?"  "he"  is  the  subject  of 
inquiry,  not  of  assertion;  and  the  sentence  is,  therefore,  inter- 
rogative. 

A  group  of  related  words,  containing  a  subject  and  a  pred- 
icate and  asking  a  question,  is  an  interrogative  sentence. 

We  need  to  study  two  forms  of  the  interrogative  sentence. 
The  first  form  is  used  in  such  questions  as  may  be  answered 
by  yes  or  no;  the  second  in  questions  which  cannot  be  answered 
in  this  way. 

The  change  from  a  declarative  sentence  to  an  interrogative 
sentence  of  the  first  form  is  one  of  arrangement  only,  the  sub- 
ject and  the  predicate  being  transposed.  In  interrogative 
sentences  of  this  form,  the  subject /o/Zou^s  at  least  a  part  of  the 
predicate. 

Example. — Does  he  study?     (interrogative) 

He  does  study,     (declarative) 

The  interrogative  sentence  of  the  second  form  is  used  in 
such  questions  as  may  not  be  answered  by  yes  or  no. 

The  question  is  asked  usually  by  placing  certain  Avords 
at  or  near  the  beginning  of  the  sentence. 

Example. — Where  did  he  go? 

What  did  you  see? 

Who  is  that  man? 

Punctuation. — The  construction  of  the  interrogative 
sentence  is  such  that  its  punctuation  requires  particular  care. 

Have   you   visited   Independence   Hall   in   Philadelphia? 

He  asked  if  I  had  visited  Independence  Hall  in  Philadephia. 

A  comparison  of  the  above  sentences  will  show  that  the  first 
sentence  requires  an  answer  and  that  the  second  cannot  be 


THE  INTERROGATIVE  SENTENCE  13 

answered.  The  first  sentence  asks  a  direct  question,  one  that  re- 
quires an  answer,  and  is  an  interrogative  sentence.  The  second 
sentence  expresses  an  indirect  question,  one  that  does  not 
require  an  answer.  It  merely  asserts  that  a  question  has  been 
asked,  and  is,  tlierefore,  a  declarative  sentence. 

An  interrogation  point  (?)  should  follow  a  direct  question, 
hut  should  not  follow  an  indirect  question. 

''Wiiy   do  you   not  visit   Independence   Hall?"    he   said. 

This  sentence  is  declarative,  but  it  contains  a, direct  question. 

An  viterrogation  point  (?)  should  follow  a  direct  question 
that  forms  a  part  of  a  declarative  sentence. 

When  a  direct  question  is  asked  in  the  exact  words  of  an- 
other, the  question  must  be  inclosed  within  quotation  marks 
C  ")  and  the  first  word  capitalized,  as  illustrated  in  the  above 
sentence. 

If  the  sentence  just  given  is  made  to  read.  He  said,  ''Why 
do  you  not  visit  Independence  Hall?"  a  somewhat  unusual 
thing  takes  place.  A  declarative  sentence  is  followed  by  the 
interrogation  point. 

EXERCISE  2 

Indicate  the  subjects  and  the  predicates  of  the  following 
sentences  of  the  first  form  (those  that  can  be  answered  with 
yes  or  no)  as  suggested  in  Exercise  1. 

Copy  the  sentences  of  the  second  form  and  underscore 
the  question  word. 

1.  Did  you  come  from  home? 

2.  Which  is  the  crest  of  a  mountain? 

3.  Do  you  know  that  man? 

4.  Where  are  the  bounds  of  America? 

5.  Do  the  diligent  pupils  love  their  school? 

6.  Why  have  logs  been  rolled  into  t!io  fire? 

7.  How  are  oxen  hitched  together? 

8.  Did  Cyrus  Field  lay  the  Atlantic  Cable? 

9.  WTiere  do  the  daisies  grow? 
10.  Shall  we  send  the  goods? 


14  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES   IN   ENGLISH 

11.  Why  are  the  hounds  baffled? 

12.  Did  Elias  Howe  invent  the  sewing  machine? 

13.  What  does  the  man  wish? 

14.  Which  boat  won  the  race? 

15.  When  should  the  note  be  paid? 

16.  Do  you  love  your  enemies? 

17.  Where  did  the  swallow  build  her  nest? 

18.  Can  he  call  to-morrow? 

19.  How  many  books  are  here? 

20.  Did  he  work  satisfactorily? 

21.  TOiere  did  you  find  the  money? 

22.  Why  is  the  farmer  under  the  tree? 

23.  Did  the  lazy  man  fail? 

24.  Will  you  call  for  me  at  ten  o  'clock? 

25.  How  should  birds  be  treated? 

26.  When  do  grass  and  grain  need  rain? 

27.  What  is  the  price  of  this  book? 

28.  Where  are  you  going? 

29.  How  soon  will  you  pay  me? 

30.  Will  you  sign  this  petition? 

Write  interrogative  sentences  containing  each  of  the  follow- 
ing  words  used  as  a  question  word:  Why,  whither,  when,  where, 
how,  who,  which,  what. 

Write  interrogative  sentences  using  the  following  words: 
Must  study,  can  teach,  is,  has,  did  die,  will  choose,  did  see,  do 
grow,  are  used,  took. 

LESSON  3 

IMPERATIVE  AND  EXCLAMATORY  SENTENCES 

A  sentence  may  be  used  to  express  a  command  or  an 
entreaty. 

"Be  ambitious"  expresses  a  command. 

"Give  us,  this  day,  our  daily  bread"  expresses  an  entreaty. 

A  word  or  a  grouj)  of  related  words  expressing  a  command 
or  an  entreaty  is  an  imperative  sentence. 

Since  a  command  implies  that  the  ])(M'son  commanding 
speaks  directly  to  the  person  or  persons  commanded,  the  im- 
perative sentence  usually  has  the  subject  thou  or  you  understood. 


IMPERATIVE   AND    EXCLAMATORY    SENTENCE  15 

When  the  subject  is  expressed,  the  sentence  is  in  the  trans- 
posed order. 

Example. — Praise  ye  the  Lord. 

In  the  sentence,  '^John,  come,  here,"  ''John"  is  not  the 
subject  of  the  sentence.  The  word  "John"  is  used  to  attract 
the  attention  of  the  person  whom  we  wish  to  command,  and  it  is 
said  to  be  used  independently. 

Punctuation. — A  period  (.)  should  follow  every  imperative 
sentence. 

Sentences  belonging  to  any  one  of  the  classes  that  we  have 
studied  may  be  used  to  express  strong  feeling,  or  emotion ;  and 
when  so  used,  they  are  called  exclamatory  sentences. 

Example. — How  beautiful  this  night! 

Who  would  have  done  so! 

Kill  me  not! 

Although  any  sentence  may,  without  change  of  order, 
become  exclamatory,  exclamatory  sentences  frequently  begin 
with  how  or  what  and  are  usually  in  the  transposed  order. 

Example. — -How  beautiful  this  night! 

What  visions  have  I  seen! 

Punctuation. — 'An  exclamation  point  (!)  should  follow 
every  exclamatory  sentence. 

We  may  now  say  that  a  sentence  is  a  word  or  a  group  of 
related  ivords  used  to  express  a  complete  thought,  to  ask  a  question, 
to  give  a  command,  or  to  express  some  emotion. 

The  first  loord  in  every  sentence  should  be  capitalized. 

EXERCISE  3 

Copy  the  following  sentences  using  periods,  interrogation 
points,  exclamation  points  and  quotation  marks  where  they 
should  be  used. 

1.  Did  you  enjoy  your  trip 

2.  They  asked  me  how  I  enjoyed  nw  trip 
'^.  Shall  we  send  the  goods 

4.  Have  you  anything  else  to  offer 


16  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

5.  Shall  we  resort  to  dishonesty 

6.  He  asked  if  dishonesty  ever  pays 

7.  Have  you  always  been  honest  he  asked 

8.  He  said  have  you  always  been  honest 

9.  They  inquired  what  time  the  star  appeared 

10.  Are  your  parents  willing  that  you  should  do  so 

11.  I  asked  him  whether  he  intended  to  go 

12.  He  asked  me  whether  I  would  call  to-morrow 

13.  The  question  shall  we  live  is  an  important  one 

14.  He  said  who  goes  there 

15.  The  question  who  goes  there  was  not  answered 

16.  Is  he  not  able  to  pay  the  money  asked  Portia 

17.  What  have  you  to  say  the  la^vyer  asked 

18.  The  laAV}XT  asked  the  prisoner  what  he  had  to  say 

19.  Were  you  injured  in  the  accident 

20.  Do  you  still  expect  an  advancement 

21 .  How  did  that  happen  he  asked 

22.  He  asked  me  how  it  happened 

23.  The  question  is  how  can  we  get  home 

24.  When  shall  we  three  meet  again 

25.  Can  you  effect  a  settlement 

26.  Must  you  keep  the  book  or  can  it  be  exchanged 

27.  Which  shall  we  ship  first  the  coal  or  the  lumber 

28.  Shall  we  ship  the  goods  to-day  or  to-morrow 

29.  Did  they  buy  the  red  one  or  the  blue  one 

30.  Did  you  buy  the  house  or  do  you  rent  it 

Using  the  following   words,  write   ten  imperative  sentences: 
choose,  use,  obey,  strive,  devote,  live,  love,  lend,  listen,  remember. 

LESSON  4 
MODIFYING  ELEMENT 

In  the  sentence,  ''The  white  flowers  of  the  lilac  grew 
by  the  cottage  door,"  ''flowers"  is  the  subject;  but  not  all 
flowers  grew — ^the  white  flowers  and  those  of  the  lilac.  "White" 
and  "of  the  lilac"  are  called  modifying  elements  or  simply 
modifiers. 

Likewise,  "grow"  is  the  predicate  and  "by  the  cottage 
door"  is  a  modifier. 


MODIFYING    ELEMENT 


17 


In  addition  to  the  subject  and  the  predicate,  a  sentence 
may  contain  modifiers. 

A  word  or  a,  group  of  related  words  joined  to  any  pai^t  of  a 
sentence  to  change  or  liinit  its  meaning  is  a  modifier. 

''  Of  the  lilac  "  and  "  by  the  cottage  door  "  are  called  phrases. 

A  group  of  related  ivords  that  does  not  contain  a  subject 
and  a  predicate  is  called  a  phrase. 

EXERCISE  4 

Indicate  the  subjects,  predicates,  and  modifiers  in  the 
following  sentences,  as  suggested  below. 

The  white  flowers  of  the  lilac  grew  by  the  cottage  door. 

I  I     PREDI- 

SUBJECT   i  '       GATE 


SUBJECT 


MODI- 
FIERS 


flowers 


The  white 
of  the  lilac 


PREDI- 
CATE 

grew 


MODI- 
FIERS 


by  the 
cottage  door 


1.  The  book  lies  on  the  table. 

2.  Many  msects  are  decorated  with  1  brilliant  colors. 

3.  A  statue  of  Justice  stood  in  the  market  place. 

4.  A  clock  of  brass  ticked  on  the  mantel. 

5.  We  go  to  school  in  the  morning. 

6.  During  the  day,  he  wTote  many  letters. 

7.  In  the  beginning,  God  created  the  earth. 

8.  They  turned  abruptly . 

9.  The  lo^Aang  herd  ^nnds  slowly  o'er  the  lea. 

10.  The  curling  blue  smoke  rises  in  the  air. 

11.  A  fire  of  coals  burned  in  the  grate. 

12.  The  leaves  of  the  maple  are  falling. 

13.  The  dreamy  murmur  of  insects  was  heard  over  our  heads. 

14.  An  ancient  and  stately  hall  stood  near  the  village. 

15.  His  trusty  sword  lay  by  his  side. 

16.  The  ^\ild  monkeys  of  South  America  climl^  ^^^th  great  agility. 

17.  The  buffaloes  of  the  prairies  are  almost  extinct. 

18.  A  red  squirrel  on  an  oak  tree  conversed  pleasantly  with  a 

grey  squirrel. 


18  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

19.  The  hero  of  the  Book  of  Job  came  from  a  strange  land 

20.  A  fertile  valley  lies  between  the  two  momitains. 

21.  He  went  for  the  doctor. 

22.  England  was  conquered   by  the  Normans   in  the   eleventh 

centuiy. 

23.  A  breezy  morning  died  into  silent  noon. 

24.  The  Delta  of  the  Mississippi  was  once  at  St.  Louis. 

25.  Columbus  discovered  America  in  1492. 

Write  sentences  containing  the  following  phrases :  In  the  near 
future;  along  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic;  without  many  friends; 
in  the  center  of  the  solar  system;  after  very  long  delay;  after  a 
cold  journey  in  the  rain;  with  few  signs  of  success;  near  the  bank 
of  the  river;  in  pine  forests;  on  high  mountains. 

LESSON  5 
THE  SIMPLE  SENTENCE 

From  the  point  of  view  of  use,  we  have  learned  that  sentences 
may  be  declarative,  interrogative,  imperative,  and  exclamatory. 

We  shall  now  study  sentences  to  see  how  they  are  classified 
from  the  point  of  view  of  structure. 

In  the  sentence,  ^'Efficiency  is  the  new  virtue, "  ''efficiency  " 
is  the  subject;  and  "is  the  new  virtue"  is  the  predicate. 

In  the  sentence,  "The  heavens  and  the  earth  were  created 
by  God,"  "were  created"  is  the  predicate;  and  it  is  affirmed 
of  both  "heavens"  and  "earth."  "Heavens"  and  "earth" 
form  a  compound  subject. 

Two  or  more  united  subjects,  having  the  same  -predicate,  for  in 
a  co7npound  subject. 

The  sentence,  "John  reads  and  writes,"  contains  one 
subject  only,  "John;"  but  it  contains  two  predicates,  "reads" 
and  "writes."  "Reads"  and  "writes"  form  a  compound 
predicate. 

Two  or  more  united  predicates  having  the  same  subject  form 
a  compound  predicate. 

The  sentence,  "The  men  and  women  of  the  doomed  city 


THE    SIMPLE    SENTENCE 


19 


wept  and  prayed/^  contains  a  compound  subject  "men  and 
women,"  and  a  compound  predicate,  ''wept  and  prayed." 

A   sentence  containing  hut  one  subject  and  one  predicate, 
either  or  both  of  which  may  be  compound,  is  a  simple  sentence. 


EXERCISE  5 


Indicate  the    subjects,   predicates,   and    modifiers  in  the 
following  sentences,  as  suggested  below. 

1.  The  heavens  and  the  earth  were  created  by  God. 

2.  The  industrious  boy  reads  and  \vrites  well. 


SUBJECT 

SUBJECT 
MODI- 
FIERS 

PREDI- 
CATE 

PREDI- 
CATE 
MODI- 
FIERS 

1. 

heavens 
and  earth 

The 
the 

were  created 

by  God 

2. 

boy 

The 
industrious 

reads  and 
WTites 

well 

1.  James  and  William  study  diligently. 

2.  Mary  sings  and  plays. 

3.  Education  and  Love  rule  in  the  end. 

4.  Ralph  rides  in  the  morning  and  walks  in  the   evening. 

5.  Harry  and  William  go  to  school. 

6.  The  children  hop,  skip,  and  jump. 

7.  The  trees  and  the  grass  are  growing. 

8.  John  stays  at  home  and  worlds  in  the  garden. 

9.  Teachers  and  pupils  study  and  play. 

10.  The  boys  and  the  girls  of  this  school  behave  well. 

11.  Fish  and  frogs  Hve  in  the  ponds. 

12.  Friend  and  foe  applauded. 

13.  He  and  I  have  finished  the  work. 

14.  Empires  rise,  flourish,  and  decay. 

15.  Anxious  men,  women,  and  children  waited  for  the  news. 

16.  The  owl  sleeps  during  the  day  and  flies  at  night. 

17.  The  man  hurried  from  the  house  and  ran  to  the  barn. 


20  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

18.  Judges  and  senates  have  been  bought  \vith  gold. 

19.  Time  and  tide  wait  for  no  man. 

20.  Father  and  son  were  injured. 

Express  in  a  simple  sentence  the  thought  suggested  by 
each  of  the  following  exercises. 

Example. — ^Albany  is  the  capital  of  New  York.  It  stands 
on  the  bank  of  the  Hudson  River.  It  is  about  one  hundred 
miles  from  its  mouth. 

Sentence.  Albany,  the  capital  of  New  York,  is  situated 
on  the  Hudson  River  about  one  hundred  miles  from  its  mouth. 

1.  The  doctor  was  reading  a  book.     The  doctor  had  a  pleasant 

smile  on  his  face.     The  doctor  was  seated  in  an  easy  chair. 

2.  Columbus  set  sail  in  the  morning.     The  day  was  Friday. 

It  was  the  3rd  of  August.     It  was  the  year  1492. 

3.  A  company  of  merchants  took  possession  of  the  place.     They 

formed  a  settlement  there.     They  intended  to  trade  with 
the  natives. 

4.  He  obtained  the  service  of  two  guides.     These  guides  were 

experienced  men.       He  began  his  march  to  the  fort.     He 
took  with  him  his  entire  force. 

5.  It  was  a  magnificent  palace.     A  cottage  stood  near  the  en- 

trance.    The  cottage  was  old  and  in  ruins.     A  weaver  lived 
in  it.     He  was  poor.      He  was  contented. 

6.  The  room  was  only  twenty  feet  square.     The  ■\\'indows  were 

small  and  obstructed.     It  was  the  middle  of  summer.     The 
number  of  prisoners  was  one  hundred  forty-six. 

7.  The  adventurers  returned  to  France  the  next  year.     The}- 

carried  off  the  king  with  them.     This  caused  great  grief  to 
his  subjects. 

8.  I  had  a  cap.     It  was  high  and  shapeless.     It  was  made  of  a 

goat 's  skin.     It  had  a  flap  hanging  down  behind. 

9.  I  had  a  pair  of  breeches.     These  were  likewise  of  goatskin. 

They    were    short.     They    were    open-loieed.     They  were 
made  of  the  skin  of  an  old  he-goat. 
10.  I  had  on  a  belt.     It  was  broad.     It  was  of  goatsldn  dried. 
This  belt  I  chew  together  with  two  thongs  of  the  same. 


THE    COMPLEX    SENTENCE  21 

LESSON  6 
THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE 

The  sentence,  ''The  boj^  who  is  ambitious  will  succeed," 
consists  of  two  groups  of  related  words,  ''The  boy  will  suc- 
ceed'' and  ''who  is  ambitious,"  each  containing  a  subject  and 
a  predicate. 

"The  boy  will  succeed"  and  "who  is  ambitious"  are  called 
clauses. 

A  part  of  a  sentence  that  contains  a  subject  and  a  predicate 
is  called  a  clause. 

If  we  examine  the  clauses,  "The  boy  will  succeed"  and 
"who  is  ambitious,"  carefully,  we  shall  see  that  they  are  not 
of  equal  importance.  "Who  is  ambitious"  describes  the  sub- 
ject "  boy  "  of  the  clause,  "  The  boy  will  succeed. "  The  sentence 
is  equivalent  to  "The  ambitious  boy  will  succeed." 

The  clause,  "The  boy  will  succeed,"  expresses  a  coinplete 
thought;  but  the  clause,  "who  is  ambitious,"  expresses  an 
incomplete  or   related  thought,   and   is  a  modifying  element. 

"The  boy  "v^ill  succeed"  is  called  an  independent  clause, 
and  "who  is  ambitious"  is  called  a  dependent  clause. 

A  clause  that  expresses  a  complete  thought  in  itself  is  an 
iyidependent  clause;  a  clause  that  does  not  express  a  complete 
thought  is  a  dependent  clause.  A  dependent  clause  may  he  used  to 
modify  the  subject  or  the  predicate. 

A  sentence  that  contains  but  one  independent  clause  and  one 
or  more  dependent  clauses,  is  called  a  complex  sentence. 

EXERCISE  6 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  doubly  underscore  the  in- 
dependent clauses,  singly  underscore  the  dependent  clauses, 
and  indicate  whether  the  dependent  clause  modifies  the  subject 
or  the  predicate,  as  suggested  below. 

Example. —  The  boy  who   does  not  respect  his  parents, 


\\'ill  not  succeed,     (subject) 


22  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

1.  The  man  who  hesitates  is  lost. 

2.  Fools  who  came  to  scoff  remained  to  pray. 

3.  Washington  was  a  man  who  achieved  greatness. 

4.  The  man  who  is  diligent  in  his  business  Tvdll  succeed. 

5.  When  the  horse  ran  away,  the  boy  was  hurt. 

6.  If  wishes  were  horses,  beggars  might  ride. 

7.  The  house,  in  which  I  was  born,  still  stands. 

8.  The  man  who  works  is  a  happy  man. 

9.  When  the  sun  rose,  the  flag  was  still  there. 

10.  The  boy  who  loves  his  school  behaves  well. 

1 1.  As  soon  as  the  king  died,  the  strife  was  renewed. 

12.  When  the  train  started,  the  men  cheered. 

13.  When  Moses  smote  the  rock,  the  water  gushed  forth. 

14.  The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them. 

15.  It  was  Noah  Webster  who  compiled  the  dictionary. 

16.  The  city  to  which  I  refer  is  New  York. 

17.  The  fur  which  warms  the  monarch  warmed  the  bear. 

18.  If  we  look  for  it,  beauty  is  everywhere. 

19.  He  who  would  search  for  pearls  must  dive  below. 

20.  He  jests  at  scars  who  never  felt  a  wound. 

21.  If  a  man  empties  his  purse  into  his  head,  no  man  can  take  it 

away  from  him. 

22.  When  faith  is  lost,  the  man  is  dead. 

23.  I  venerate  the  man  whose  heart  is  kind. 

24.  The  man  whom  you  saw  is  my  brother. 

25.  The  seed  which  was  planted,  has  become  a  large  tree. 

Express    in    a    complex    sentence    the  thought  suggested 
by  each  of  the  following  exercises. 

1.  A  poor  woman  heard  of  his  generosity.     She  wrote  him  a 

letter.     In  it  she  urged  him  to  send  her  something  for  her 
son.     Her  son  was  ill.    He  was  imable  to  work. 

2.  The  long  quarrel  commenced.     It  began  in  India.     It  was 

afterward  renewed  in  England.    The  most  eminent  states- 
men took  part  in  it.    They  were  on  one  side  or  the  other. 

3.  A  bold  plan  occurred  to  him.     Many  persons  would  have  hes- 

itated to  attempt  it.     He  carried  it  through  successfully. 

4.  His  reputation  is  blemished  by  great  crimes.    It  is  impos- 

sible to  deny  this.     However,  he  had  rendered  great  pub- 
lic service.     In  justice  to  him  this  should  be  borne  in  mhid. 


The  compound  sentence  23 

5.  I  had  also  a  jacket.  This  jacket  was  short.  It  was  of  goat- 
skin. Its  skirts  came  down  to  about  the  middle  of  my 
thighs. 

LESSON  7 
THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE 

In  the  sentence,  *'Mary  studies,  but  John  plays,"  there 
are  two  independent  clauses,  ''Mary  studies"  and  'Mohn 
plays,"  connected  by  the  word  'M3ut. " 

A  sentence  may  contain  any  number  of  independent  clauses, 
combined  for  the  sake  of  brevity;  such  a  combination  of  clause  s 
is  said  to  form  a  coinpoiind  sentence. 

A  sentence  that  contains  two  or  more  independent  clauses 
is  a  compound  sentence. 

The  sentence,  *'The  boy  who  was  here  went  home,  but 
his  brother  went  to  the  city,"  is  a  compound  sentence.  ''The 
boy  who  was  here  went  home"  is  one  independent  clause, 
and  "his  brother  went  to  the  city"  is  another.  The  clause, 
"The  boy  who  was  here  went  home,"  when  considered  alone, 
is  complex,  "The  boy  went  home"  is  the  independent  clause, 
and  "who  was  here"  is  the  dependent  clause.  Such  a  sentence 
is  called  a  compound-complex  sentence. 

Any  one,  or  all,  of  the  independent  clauses  of  a  compound 
sentence  may  be  complex. 

Punctuation. — -The  meaning  of  a  sentence  depends  vitally 
on  the  grouping  of  words  that  are  related  in  thought. 

In  writing,  we  use  certain  7narks  of  punctuation  to  show 
word  grouping. 

We  shall  study  now  a  few  of  these  marks  of  punctuation 
as  they  are  used  in  compound  sentences. 

Letter  received;  goods  will  be  shipped  immediately. 

A  connecting  word  is  not  used  in  the  above  sentence.  The 
clauses  are  connected  in  thought  by  position,  and  they  are 
separated  by  a  semicolon  (;) 


24  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

Independent  clauses  of  a  compound  sejite^ice,  connected  by 
position,  without  a  connecting  ivord,  are  separated  by  a  semicolon. 

"Death  entombs  the  body;  but  hfe,  the  soul. '' 

The  word  ''but"  connects  the  clauses  ua  the  sentence 
just  given.  One  of  the  clauses,  however,  is  divided  into  parts 
by  a  comma  (,);  and  the  clauses  are  separated  from  each 
other  by  the  semicolon. 

When  one  or  more  independent  clauses  of  a  compound  sen- 
te7ice  are  divided  into  parts  by  the  comma,  a  semicolo7i  should 
separate  the  independent  clauses  of  the  sentence. 

"  Either  Hamlet  was  mad,  or  he  feigned  madness  well." 

The  clauses  of  the  above  sentence  are  connected  by  the 
word  ''or,"  and  the  clauses  are  separated  by  a  comma. 

When  a  connecting  word  is  used,  and  no  one  of  the  independent 
clauses  is  divided  by  the  comma,  the  independent  clauses  are 
separated  by  the  comma. 

(If  the  connecting  word,  however,  is  one  of  the  following 
words:  so,  therefore,  hence,  however,  nevertheless,  moreover, 
accordingly,  besides,  also,  thus,  then,  still,  and  otherwise, 
the  semicolon  is  frequently  used.) 

Example. — The  president  bowed;  then  the  people  began 
to  shout. 

The  sentence,  "Did  you  buy  the  house?  or  do  you  rent 
it?  "  is  a  compound  sentence,  each  clause  of  which  asks  a  direct 
question;  and  each  part  of  the  sentence  that  asks  a  direct 
question  is  followed  by  the  interrogation  point. 

In  a  compound  sentence,  an  interrogation  point  should  fol- 
low each  part  that  asks  a  direct  question. 

If  the  meaning  of  a  sentence  is  not  complete  until  the  end 
of  the  sentence  is  reached,  the  interrogation  point  is  placed  at 
the  end  of  the  sentence  only. 

Example. — When   did   he    arrive,    yesterday   or   to-day? 


THE    COMPOUND    SENTENCE  26 

EXERCISE  7 

Copy  the  following  sentences  and  separate  the  independent 
clauses  in  each  by  using  the  correct  marks  of  punctuation. 

1.  The  man  dies  but  his  memory  lingers. 

2.  Example  is  better  than  precept  inspiration  is  better    than 

instruction. 

3.  Labor  is  life  repose  is  suicide. 

4.  Wealth  may  seek  us  but  wisdom  must  be  sought. 

5.  Be  temperate  in  youth  or  you  must  be  abstinent  in  old  age. 

6.  Nothing  is  denied  to  honest  labor  nothing  is  ever  to  be  attained 

without  it. 

7.  The  moon  had  sunk  below  the  hill  and  the  stars  came  out 

doubly  bright. 

8.  Of  thy  unspoken  word,  thou  art  master  thy  spoken  word  is 

master  of  thee. 

9.  Blessed  is  the  man  who  has  found  his  work  he  should  ask 

for  no  other  blessing. 

10.  Have  patience  with  me  and  I  ^vill  pay  thee  all. 

11.  Every  day  is  a  little  life  and  our  whole  life  is  but  a  day  re- 

peated. 

12.  They  toil  not  neither  do  they  spin. 

13.  It  is  one  thing  to  be  wx41  informed  it  is  another  to  be  wise. 

14.  The  ravine  is  full  of  sand  now  but  it  had  once  been  full  of 

water. 

15.  Charm  strikes  the  sight  but  merit  wins  the  soul. 

16.  A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath  but  grievous  words  stir 

up  anger. 

17.  Ye  shall  know  the  truth  and  the  truth  shall  make  you  free. 

18.  Learning  is  one  thing  but  wisdom  is  quite  another. 

19.  The  king  must  win  or  he  must  forfeit  his  crown. 

20.  Our  representative,  Mr.  Jones,  ^vill  call  on  you  next  w^eek  and 

w^e  hope  you  will  favor  him  with  an  order. 

21.  We  have  just  received  your  order  goods  will  be  shipped  at 

once. 

22.  We  do  not  need  the  goods  at  present  but  we  should  like  to 

know  wiien  they  will  be  shipped. 

23.  We  have  received  your  letter  of  the  loth  inst.  and  w^e  shall  be 

pleased  to  comply  with  your  request. 

24.  We  do  not  doubt  that  you  paid  tiie  bill  l^ut  we  should  like 

to  see  the  receipt. 


26  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

25.  We  will  draw  on  you  at  ten  days'  sight  and  you,  no  doubt, 
will  honor  the  draft. 

Express  in  a  compound  sentence  the  thought  suggested 
by  each  of  the  following  exercises. 

1.  The  sailors  were  unable  to  remain  on  deck.     They  climbed 

into  the  rigging.  They  saw  no  way  of  escape.  They  gave 
themselves  up  for  lost. 

2.  One  day  a  violent  storm  arose.     It  came  up  suddenly.     It 

drove  the  men  from  their  work.     Their  ladder  was   fas- 
tened to  the  cliff.     They  had  to  leave  it  there. 

3.  He  passed  through  many  trials.     He  assumed  many  disguises. 

He  wandered  about  in  great  peril  for  forty  days.  He  es- 
caped in  a  sloop  from  Mobile.  Mobile  is  in  Alabama. 
He  arrived  in  a  few  days  at  Savannah.  Savannah  is  in 
Georgia. 

4.  They  saw  their  leader  fall.     They  thought  him  killed.     They 

gave  up  the  contest  at  once.  This  had  been  the  practice 
of  their  ancestors. 

5.  Two  Englishmen  traded  there  for  many  years.     Their  name  s 

were  Elliot  and  Thorne.  They  were  under  the  protection 
of  the  king.  They  obtained  many  valuable  furs.  They 
got  them  from  the  Indians. 

ERRORS  IN  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  SENTENCES 

1.  Do  not  capitalize  and  punctuate  dependent  clauses  like 
independent  clauses. 

Example. — Incorrect:  Among  her  books  were  two  she  en- 
joyed most.     One  a  novel,  the  other  a  history. 

Correct:  Among  her  books  were  two  she  enjoyed  most; 
one  a  novel,  the  other  a  history. 

2.  Be  sure  to  finish  a  grammatical  construction. 

Example. — -Iiicorrect:  Any  boy  who  could  solve  the  prob- 
lem, the  whole  class  would  think  he  was  a  good  student. 
(The  word  '^boy'^  with  its  modifying  clause,  ^'who  could  work 
the  problem, "  has  no  grammatical  construction.) 

Correct:  Any  boy  who  could  solve  the  problem,  the  whole 
class  would  think  a  good  student. 


THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE  27 

3.  Do  not  use  a  sentence  (except  a  (juotcd  sentence),  as 
the  subject  of  is  or  was. 

Example. — Incorrect:  The  boy  did  not  study  is  the  reason 
he  failed. 

Correct :  The  boy  did  not  study,  that  is  the  reason  he  failed. 

DEFINITIONS 

A  sentence  is  a  word,  or  a  group  of  related  words,  used  to 
express  a  complete  thought,  to  ask  a  question,  to  give  a  com- 
mand, or  to  express  some  emotion. 

A  declarative  sentence  is  a  group  of  related  words  containing 
a  subject  and  a  predicate,  and  asserting  that  something  is  true 
or  not  true. 

An  interrogative  sentence  is  a  group  of  related  words  con- 
taining a  subject  and  a  predicate,  and  asking  a  question. 

An  imperative  sentence  is  a  word  or  a  group  of  related  words 
expressing  a  command  or  an  entreat}^ 

An  exclamatory  sentence  is  one  that  expresses  strong  feel- 
ing or  emotion. 

A  modifier  is  a  word,  or  a  group  of  related  words,  joined  to 
some  part  of  a  sentence  to  change  or  limit  the  meaning  of  the 
sentence. 

A  phrase  is  a  group  of  related  words  that  does  not  con- 
tain a  subject  and  a  predicate. 

A  clause  is  a  part  of  a  sentence  containing  a  subject  and  a 
predicate. 

An  independent  clause  is  one  that  expresses  a  complete 
thought. 

A  dependent  clause  is  one  that  does  not  express  a  complete 
thought. 

A  simple  sentence  is  one  that  contains  but  one  subject 
and  one  predicate,  either  or  both  of  which  may  be  compound. 

A  complex  sentence  is  one  that  contains  but  one  independent 
clause  and  one  or  more  dependent  clauses. 


28 


LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN   ENGLISH 


A  compound  sentence  is  one  that  contains  two  or  more 
independent  clauses. 

A  compound-complex  sentence  is  a  compound  sentence, 
one  or  more  clauses  of  which  are  complex. 


I.  Sentences  as  to  wse.  < 


OUTLINE  CLASSIFICATION  OF  SENTENCES 

1.  Declarative 

2.  Interrogative 

3.  Imperative 
f  Declarative 

4.  Exclamatory^  ^  Interrogative 
[  Imperative 

1.  Simple 


II.  Sentences  as  to  structure. 


III.  Sentences  as  to 
elements. 


1.  Subject 

2.  Predicate 


2.  Complex 

3.  Compound 

4.  Compound-complex 

1.  Simple 

2.  Compound 

1.  Simple 

2.  Compound 


LESSON  8 
PARTS  OF  SPEECH 

We  have  learned  that  the  two  essential  elements  of  the 
sentence  are  subject  and  predicate,  and  that  the  subject 
and  the  predicate  may  contain  phrases  and  clauses  used  as 
modifiers.  We  shall  now  see  that  the  sentence  finally  divides 
into  words. 

According  to  their  uses  in  sentences,  words  are  divided 
into  classes  called  parts  of  speech. 

Since  the  part  of  speech  of  a  word  is  determined  by  its  use 
in  a  sentence,  we  cannot  name  the  part  of  speech  of  a  word 
until  we  know  how  it  is  used  in  a  sentence. 

Do  not  ask  what  a  word  is,  but,  what  it  does. 


PARTS    OF   SPEECH  29 

There  are  many  words,  however,  that  usually  have  the 
same  use;  and  their  part  of  speech,  therefore,  is  fairly  uniform. 

In  the  sentence,  ''New  York  is  a  large  city,"  "New  York" 
and  ''city"  are  used  as  names  and  are  called  nouns. 

A  word  that  is  used  as  the  name  of  anything  is  a  noun. 

The  name,  ''New  York,"  is  given  to  a  particular  city  and 
is  called  a  proper  noun. 

The  name  of  a  particular  person,  place,  or  thirig  is  a  proper 
noun;  as,  William,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. 

A  proper  noun  is  an  individual  name  that  distinguishes 
the  thing  named  from  others  of  the  same  class. 

In  the  sentence,  "  Old  Winter  is  a  sturdy  fellow, "  "  Winter  " 
is  used  as  a  particular  name  of  a  thing  spoken  of  as  a  person. 
Such  use  of  a  noun  is  called  personification,  and  the  noun  so  used 
is  called  a  proper  noun. 

Proper  nouns,  and  the  words  derived  from  them,  should  he 
capitalized. 

The  name  "city"  is  common  to  all  cities  and  is  called  a 
common  noun. 

All  names,  other  than  proper  nouns,  are  called  common  noims. 

It  is  possible  to  use  a  particular  name  as  a  common  noun. 

In  the  sentence,  *'He  is  the  Webster  of  his  age,"  "Webster" 

is  used  as  a  class  name,  meaning  he  possesses  the  qualities  of  all 

men  who  are  like  Webster.     A  particular  name,  used  as  a  class 

name,  should  be  capitalized. 

^  „        ,     fl.  Class  nouns 

Commons  nouns  are  generally  sub-     ^    ^  ,,    ^. 

,..,,.,  i  2.  Collective  nouns 

divided  into  o     i  i    ^ 

3.  Abstract  nouns 

In  the  sentence,  "The  horse  is  a  noble  animal,"  "horse" 
distinguishes  that  animal  from  all  other  animals;  but  it  does 
not  distinguish  one  horse  from  another — it  is  conwion  to  all 
animals  of  the  class.     Horse  is  called  a  class  noun. 

A  ivord  used  to  denote  the  class  to  which  a  thing  belongs  is  a 
dass  noun. 


30  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

In  the  sentence,  ''The  army  advanced  rapidly,"  "army'^ 
has  the  singular  form;  but  it  denotes  a  collection  of  persons 
looked  upon  by  the  mind  as  one  group.  "Army"  is  called  a 
collective  noun. 

A  noun  which,  in  the  singular  form,  denotes  a  collection  of 
persons  or  things  of  the  sarne  kind  is  a  collective  noun. 

In  the  sentence,  "The  whiteness  of  the  snow  was  beautiful, " 
"whiteness"  is  spoken  of  as  abstracted  from  the  snow — as  if 
"whiteness"  had  a  separate  existence. 

"Whiteness"  is  called  an  abstract  noun. 

A  noun  which  na^nes  a  quality,  a  condition  or  an  attribute 
that  is  thought  of  as  abstracted  from  the  object  to  which  it  belongs 
is  an  abstract  iioun. 

Many  abstract  nouns  are  formed  from  other  words  by  the 
use  of  such  endings  as  ness,  th,  ery^  hoodf  head. 

In  contrast  with  abstract  nouns,  we  sometimes  speak  of 
concrete  nouns,  which  are  names  of  material  things;  such  as, 
chair,  desk. 

Sometimes  two  or  more  words  make  up  one  name.  Some 
of  these  names  are  written  with  a  hyphen  (-)  between  them;  as, 
sailor-boy,  merchant-tailor.  Some  of  them  are  written  as  one 
word;  as,  sunrise,  blackberry. 

The  tendency  of  good  authors  is  to  omit  the  hyphen. 

When  the  name  formed  is  a  proper  noun,  the  words  form- 
ing the  name  are  written  as  separate  words;  as.  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

EXERCISE  8 

Classify  the  nouns  in  the  folloA\ing  sentences,  as  suggested 
by  model. 


PROPER 


COMMON 
Class  Collective  Abstract 


PARTS    OF   SPEECH  31 

1.  The  congregation  is  small. 

2.  The  family  is  large. 

3.  The  army  marched  slowly. 

4.  The  audience  is  large. 

5.  The  eggs  of  the  ostrich  are  hatched  by  the  raj's  of  the  sun. 

6.  Cowards  die  many  times  before  their  deaths. 

7.  Some  persons  do  not  loiow  the  value  of  a  dollar. 

8.  Education  is  a  better  safe-guard  of  liberty  than  a  standing 

army. 

9.  London  is  the  capital  of  England. 

10.  Caesar  was  the  conqueror  of  Gaul. 

11.  Wisdom  is  better  than  strength. 

12.  James  was  declared  a  bloody  enemy. 

13.  Many  persons  know  the  value  of  a  dollar,  ])ut  do  not  appre- 

ciate the  value  of  one  hundred  cents. 

14.  Nature  is  but  the  name  for  an  effect,  of  which  the  cause  is 

God. 

15.  The  people  elected  him  governor. 

16.  Time  makes  the  worst  enemies  friends. 

17.  Charity  covers  a  multitude  of  sins. 

18.  His  soul  was  like  a  star  and  dwelt  apart. 

19.  Industry  is  the  demand  of  nature,  of  reason,  and  of  God. 

20.  The  President  granted  the  prisoner  a  full  pardon. 

21.  Daniel  Webster  was  an  American  statesman. 

22.  The  Thames  is  a  beautiful  river. 

23.  The  emperor  of  Russia  is  called  Czar. 

24.  History  casts  its  shadow  far  into  the  land  of  song. 

25.  The  child's  illness  is  of  an  alarming  nature. 

Write  sentences  containing  each  of  the  following  collectiv(^ 
nouns;  so  construct  the  sentence  as  to  show  of  what  kind  of 
objects  each  collection  is  composed. 

Example. — team The  team  of  horses  ran  awaiy. 

1.  family                               6.  gang  11.  committee 

2.  nation                               7.  swarm  12.  fleet 

3.  army                                8.  flock  13.  suite 

4.  tribe                                 9.  herd  14.  group 

5.  crowd  10.  class  15.  colony 

Write  sentences  containing  an  abstract  noun  formed  from 
each  of  the  following  words. 


32 


LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 


Example. — -weak- 
came  alarming. 

1.  bright 

2.  warm 

3.  honest 

4.  wise 

5.  innocent 

6.  dull 

7.  pure 

8.  hard 


-The  weakness  of  the  patient  be- 


9.  high 

10.  just 

11.  true 

12.  courageous 

13.  deceive 

14.  learn 

15.  judge 

16.  please 

17.  long 


18.  proud 

19.  sweet 

20.  temperate 

21.  industrious 

22.  conceal 

23.  white 

24.  brave 

25.  beautiful 


LESSON  9 


CAPITALIZATION  OF  PROPER  NOUNS 

With  the  hope  of  simplifying  the  rule,  that  'proper  nouns  and 
words  derived  from  them  should  be  capitalized,  let  us  consider 
the  following  classes: 

1.  The  names  of  persons;  such  as,  John,  Ed^vin,  Samuel, 
William  Shakespeare. 

2.  Places.  The  accepted  names  of  places,  local  or  geo- 
graphical; such  as,  Baltimore,  Howard  Yard :  Political  divisions; 
such  as,  Fifth  Ward,  Fourth  Congressional  District:  Names  of 
streets,  parks,  buildings,  etc.;  such  as.  Chestnut  Street,  Botan- 
ical Gardens,  White  House,  Grant's  Tomb. 

3.  Titles  of  honor,  office,  and  respect,  when  preceding  the 
names;  such  as,  President  Wilson,  Colonel  Roosevelt,  Professor 
Isaac  Sharpless. 

An  official  title,  other  than  that  of  a  potentate,  following 
the  name,  is  not  capitalized;  such  as,  B.  F.  Jones,  city  engineer; 
James  Smith,  professor  of  history. 

Only  the  first  meml)er  of  a  compound  word,  occurring  in 
a  proper  name,  is  capitalized;  such  as,  Know-nothing  Party. 

4.  Names   of   religious,    political,   social,   commercial,  ed- 


CAPITALIZATION    OF    PROPER    NOUNS  33 

ucational  organizations;  such  as,  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association,  Baltimore  Board  of  Trade,  Clover  Club,  Teachers' 
Reading  Circle. 

5.  Names  of  the  days  of  the  week,  civic  and  ecclesias- 
tical holidays,  months  of  the  year;  such  as,  Monday,  Memorial 
Day,  Easter,  September. 

The  names  of  the  seasons  are  not  capitalized  unless  they 
are  personified. 

6.  Geographical  terms;  such  as,  the  Equator,  Delaware 
River,  etc. 

The  points  of  the  compass  should  not  be  capitalized  unless 
they  denote  definite  parts  of  the  country. 

Example. — Before  the  war,  his  family  settled  in  the  South. 

7.  The  important  words  in  the  subject  of  a  composition 
or  in  the  title  of  a  book;  such  as,  A  Trip  to  the  Canal  Zone, 
Heroes  and  Heroism  in  Common  Life. 

8.  Personified  nouns;  such  as.  Grim  War  unfolds  his  flag. 

9.  Names  referring  to  the  Deity;  such  as.  Father  of  All, 
Ruler  of  the  Universe. 

10.  Books  and  divisions  of  the  Bible;  such  as,  Gospel  of 
Matthew,  New  Testament. 

11.  Names  of  religious  denominations,  political  parties, 
etc.;  such  as.  Episcopalian,  Catholic,  Republican,  Democratic. 

12.  Names  of  historical  events  and  epochs;  such  as,  War 
of  Independence,  Age  of  Elizabeth. 

13.  Names  of  governmental  departments;  such  as.  De- 
partment of  Public  Works,  Supreme  Court,  House  of 
Representatives. 

14.  Principal  words  in  addresses;  such  as.  Custom  House, 
Philadelphia. 

15.  Compound  proper  names:  In  a  compound  proper  name, 
only  the  part  which  would  form  a  proper  name,  if  used  alone, 
should  begin  with  a  capital  letter;  as.  New  York  city,  Jersey 
city.     (This  rule,  however,  is  not  strictly  followed  by  all  wTiters.) 


34  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

EXERCISE   9 

Copy  the  following  sentences    and    capitalize  the  words 
that  should  be  capitalized. 

1.  the  providence  of  god  will  not  be  denied  to  his  people. 

2.  george  Washington  was  the  first  president  of  the  united  states. 

3.  the  monument  of  general  grant  is  in  riverside  park,  n.  y. 

4.  we  reckon  longitude  east  or  west  from  greemvich, 

5.  he  was  a  man  of  herculean  strength. 

6.  the  north  "will  not  oppose  the  bill. 

7.  Chicago  is  west  of  Philadelphia. 

8.  he  lives  in  the  west. 

9.  alexander  the  great  founded  alexandria. 

10.  the  president  arrived  at  the  executive  mansion  on  Wednesday. 

11.  it  was  reported  that  colonel  smith  was  wounded. 

12.  Joseph  addison,  the  english  poet  and  essayist,  was  born  at 

milton,  Aviltshire,  may  1,  1672. 

13.  he  lived  south  of  mason  and  dixon's  line. 

14.  it  is  reported  that  senator  jamcs  will  speak  to-morrow. 

15.  ex-president  taft  now  lectures  at  yale. 

16.  the  mint  is  located  on  spring  garden  street. 

17.  longfellow  is  america's  most  popular  poet. 

18.  they  live  in  a  little  \dllage  in  the  south. 

19.  the  sun  rises  in  the  east  and  sets  in  the  west. 

20.  the  secretary  of  state  holds  a  responsible  position  in  the 

united  states  government. 

21.  many  students  attend  the  summer  school  of  the  university  of 

Pennsylvania. 

22.  he  was  elected  a  member  of  congress  from  the  fourth  con- 

gressional district. 

23.  the  panama  canal  is  a  marvelous  example  of  american  achieve- 

ment. 

24.  our  english  teacher  suggested  that  we  read  scott  's  lady  of  the 

lake. 

25.  the  Walton  liotel  is  on  broad  street. 

26.  the  ohio  river  has  overflowed  its  banks. 

27.  lieutenant  Peary  discovered  the  north  pole. 

28.  d.  d.  philips,  care  of  kennett  national  bank,  kennett  square, 

pa. 

29.  every  young  man  should  read  (^morson  's  american  scholar. 

30.  o  death  where  is  thy  sting?  o  grave  where  is  thy  victory? 


CAPITALIZATION    OF    PROPER    NOUNS  35 

On  Monday,  the  12th  of  december  (old  stjio),  on  the  day 
of  the  \\'inter  solstice,  the  exploring  party  of  the  forefathers  landed 
at  pljTnouth.  That  day  is  kept  as  the  origin  of  new  england. 
The  spot,  when  examined,  promised  them  a  home,  and  on  the  loth 
the  mayflcwer  was  safely  moored  in  its  harbor.  In  memory 
of  the  hospitalities  which  the  company  had  received  at  the  last 
english  port  from  which  they  had  sailed,  this  oldest  new  england 
colony  took  the  name  of  pl3Tnouth.  The  system  of  civil  govern- 
ment had  been  adopted  by  agreement ;  the  church  had  been  organ- 
ized before  it  left  ley  den.  As  the  pilgrims  landed,  their  institutions 
were  already  perfected.  Democratic  liberty  and  independent 
christian  worship  started  into  being. 

DEFINITIONS 

A  noun  is  a  word  that  is  used  as  the  name  of  anything. 

A  proper  noun  is  the  name  of  a  particular  person,  place, 
or  thing. 

A  common  noun  is  a  word  that  does  not  apply  to  a  par- 
ticular person,  place,  or  thing. 

A  class  noun  is  a  common  noun  that  represents  a  class  of 
things. 

A  collective  noun  is  a  common  noun  that  represents  a  group 
of  persons  or  things  considered  as  a  unit. 

An  abstract  noun  is  a  common  noun  that  represents  a  qual- 
ity, a  condition,  or  an  attribute. 

OUTLINE  CLASSIFICATION  OF  NOUNS 
I.  Proper 


II.  Common 


1.  Class 

2.  Collective 

3.  Abstract 


36  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

LESSON  10 
NOUNS  SOMETIMES  MISUSED 

The  author  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  best  results  are  to  b(^ 
obtained  from  the  following  missing-word  exercises  in  the  book 
by  having  the  student  write  on  paper  the  number  of  the  sentence 
and  the  word  or  words  he  thinks  should  be  used  in  the  sentence. 

As  an  incentive  for  home  study  and  as  an  aid  to  the 
development  of  independence  in  oral  expression  on  the  part  of 
the  student,  the  papers  should  be  collected  at  the  beginning  of 
the  class  period.  The  student  should  report  in  class  on  these 
exercises  without  the  aid  of  paper. 

When  it  seems  advisable,  the  student  should  give  reasons 
and  explanations  for  the  choice  of  words  he  may  make. 

The  tactful  teacher,  however,  will  think  of  many  methods 
of  conducting  recitations  based  on  these  exercises. 

ACCESS,    ACCESSION 

Access  means  admittance,  way  of  entrance,  a  sudden  attack 
of  disease  or  passion.  Accession  means  an  addition,  the  at- 
tainment of  a  possession  or  of  a  right. 

AMATEUR,   NOVICE,   NOVITIATE 

An  amateur  is  one  who  practices  an  art  not  as  a  livelihood 
but  as  a  pastime.  A  novice  is  one  who  is  inexperienced  in 
any  business,  occupation  or  art.  A  novitiate  is  a  period  of 
preparation  or  the  time  during  which  one  is  a  novice. 

AUDIENCE,    SPECTATORS 

An  audience  is  an  assembly  of  persons  to  listen  to  something. 
A  building  in  which  an  audience  meets  is  an  auditorium.     Spec- 
tators are  those  who  assemble  to  see;  they  are  eye-witnesses 
A  building  in  which  spectators  meet  is  a  spectatorium. 


NOUNS    SOMETIMES    MISUSED  37 

ALLUSION,    ILLUSION,    DELUSION 

An  allusion  is  an  indirect  and  incidental  reference  to  some- 
thing. An  illusion  is  an  error  of  one  of  the  senses,  usually  sight. 
A  delusion  is  an  error  of  judgTuent  or  a  mental  deception. 

ADHERENCE,    ADHESION 

Adherence  is  the  act,  state  or  condition  of  adhering  and  is 
used  of  moral  relations.  Adhesion  is  usually  used  of  physical 
connection. 

ACT,    ACTION 

An  act  is  a  single  thing  done,  or  that  which  is  done  by  a 
single  effort.  Action  is  the  method  by  which  a  thing  is  done, 
and  it  may  consist  of  several  acts. 

ADVANCE,   ADVANCEMENT 

Advance  is  the  act  of  moving  forward  physically,  mentally, 
morally  or  socially.  Advancement  is  the  act  or  state  of  being 
moved  forward;  promotion. 

BALANCE,    REMAINDER,    REST 

Balance  means  the  difference  between  two  sides  of  an  ac- 
count. Remainder  is  that  which  is  left  after  a  part  has  been 
removed.  Remainder  applies  to  things  only  and  implies  a 
comparatively  small  part.  Rest  applies  to  persons  or  things 
and  is  used  of  large  as  well  as  of  small  parts. 

CHARACTER,    REPUTATION 

Character  lies  in  the  man;  it  is  what  he  is.  Reputation 
depends  upon  others;  it  is  what  they  think  he  is. 

EXERCISE  10 

Write  the  number  of  each  sentence  and  the  correct  word. 

ACCESS,  ACCESSION 

1.  An  ■ of  anger  killed  Dame  Van  Winkle. 

2.  The  king's to  the  throne  was  followed  with  a  brilliant 

reception. 


38  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

3.  All  but  members  of  the  court  were  denied  ■ — — — —  to  the  king. 

4.  The  only' to  the  robbers' cave  was  a  rope  ladder. 

5.  The of  the  United  States  have  increased  the  respon- 

sibilities of  ihe  government. 
6. to  the  prison  was  through  an  iron  door. 

7.  Columbus  finally  gained — — ■  to  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

8.  A  sudden- -of  feeling  overcame  the  prisoner 's  aged 

mother. 

9.  Sudden of   wealth   are   seldom   followed  with  good 

consequences. 

AMATEUR,  NOVICE,  NOVITIATE 

1.  He  was  inexperienced  and  a  • in  the  business. 

2.  This  is  the  abbey  in  which  he  served  his  - — — - — - — . 

3.  Only  • •  were  admitted  to  the  gam(\ 

4.  When  he  was  a  • —  in  the  abbey  he  studied  diligently. 

5.  Sometimes  • — — play  ball  better  than  professionals. 

6.  Washington  Irving  saw  a  beautiful  • —  enter  a  convent 

to  begin  her . 

7.  Grover  Cleveland  served  a  long in  public  office  be- 

fore he  was  nominated  for  the  Presidency. 

AUDIENCE,   SPECTATORS 

1.  The was  disappointed  because  the  speaker  did  not 

arrive. 

2.  Many  of  the  — fainted  when  they  saw  the  aviator  fall. 

3.  The listened  attentively  during  the  debate. 

4.  The  — — — —  were  surprised  at  the  spec^d  of  the  automobiles. 

ALLUSION,  ILLUSION,  DELUSION 

1.  Many  of  the —  of  the  concave  and  convex  mirrors  are 

very  funny. 

2.  The of  the  bent  appearance  of  the  sticlc  when  one 

end  was  placed  in  water,  was  explained  by  the  teacher. 

3.  Some  of  the in  the  lecture  were  not  understood  by  all. 

4.  A  fanatic  is  oftt^n  the  subjt^ct  of  many . 

5.  That  W(^  could  have  liberty  before  having  union  was  a . 

ADHERENCE,  ADHESION 

1.  His to  the  political  doctrines  of  Thomas  Jefferson 

was  plainly  seen. 


NOUNS    SOMETIMES    MISUSED  '  39 

2.  The  judge 's  ■ ■-  to  the  principles  of  justice  was  commend- 

able. 

3.  The •  of  the  mortar  and  brick  was  satisfactory. 

4.  The  permanency  of  our  buildings  depends  upon  the  attraction 

of . 

ACT,  ACTION 

1 .  Sergeant  Jasper  performed  a  brave at  Fort  Moultrie. 

2.  Admiral  Dewey's in  dealing  with  the  Filipinos  was 

diplomatic. 

3.  The  assassination  of  President   McKinley  was  a   treacher- 

ous   . 

4.  The  • —  of  Parliament  form  a  large  part  of  the  English 

Constitution. 

5.  Another  mode  of  ■ — ■ — — —  was  proposed  by  Henry  Clay. 

6.  I  cannot  do  so  cruel  an  — — — — . 

ADVANCE,  ADVANCEMENT 

1.  Under  the  rules  of  Civil  Service,  ■ is  based  on  merit. 

2.  The of  the  army  was  retarded  by  the  heavy  rains. 

3.  During  the  • of  the  army,  so  many  superior  officers 

were   killed   that   there   were   many   opportunities    for 
the  ■ • — ■  of  subordinate  officers. 

4.  His  position  offers  little  hope  for . 

5.  ■ in  the  army  is  slow. 

6.  The of  the  army  was  rapid. 

BALANCE,    REMAINDER,    REST 

1.  The  boys  spent  the  • of  the  day  fishing. 

2.  He  did  not  know  his •  in  bank. 

3.  If  sea  water  be  evaporated,  the yields  salt. 

4.  Religion  gives  part  of  its  reward  now;  for  the  ■ — ,  it 

offeis  the  security  of  Heaven. 

5.  Armed  like  the ,  the  prince  appeared. 

CHARACTER,  REPUTATION 

1.  His saved  him  from  suspicion. 

2.  Lincoln  is  a  great  historical . 

3.  Washington  had  a  great  — as  a  general. 

4.  Tlu^  man  saw  that  his  — — ■ was  at  stake. 


40  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

LESSON  11 

NOUNS  SOMETIMES  MISUSED— Continued 

ABILITY,   CAPACITY 

Ability  is  the  power  of  doing.  Capacity  is  the  power  of 
receiving  and  containing.  Ability  may  be  either  mental  or  phys- 
ical.    When  applied  to  persons,  capacity  is  mental  only. 

AVOCATION,    VOCATION 

An  avocation  is  a  diversion,  that  which  calls  one  away 
from  one's  regular  work.  A  person's  vocation  is  his  regular 
business  or  profession. 

AMOUNT,  NUMBER,  QUANTITY 

Amount  means  the  sum  total  and  applies  to  quantity  and 
number.  Number  applies  to  things  which  may  be  counted; 
quantity  to  that  which  may  be  measured. 

ANSWER,   RESPONSE,   REPLY 

An  answer  is  given  to  a  question.  A  response  is  made  to 
assert  or  affirm  and  is  in  accordance  with  the  words  of  another. 
A  reply  is  made  to  an  assertion.  We  answer  letters  and  reply 
to  arguments  and  statements. 

ADMITTANCE,    ADMISSION 

Admittance  is  the  right  or  permission  to  enter,  it  refers  to 
place..  Admission  not  only  refers  to  place  but  also  to  position 
or  favor. 

ARGUMENT,    PLEA 

A  plea  is  a  defendant 's  answer  of  fact  before  a  trial  and  is 
addressed  to  the  court.  An  argument  is  the  reasons  offered 
for  or  against  an  opinion.  An  argument  may  be  addressed 
to  the  Court  or  to  the  Jury. 


NOUNS    SOMETIMES    MISUSED  41 

ASSERTION,    STATEMENT 

An  assertion  is  a  declaration  without  proof.  A  statement 
is  a  formal  narration  of  facts. 

ACCEPTANCE,   ACCEPTATION 

Acceptance  means  the  act  of  accepting,  or  a  favorable 
reception.  Acceptation  is  the  state  of  being  accepted;  also  the 
sense  in  which  an  expression  is  generally  accepted.  Words 
and  expressions  acquire  their  acceptation  from  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  generally  used. 

EXERCISE  11 

Write  the  number  of  each  sentence  and  the  correct  word. 

ABILITY,    CAPACITY 

1.  His to  write  a  good  letter  secured  for  him  the 

position. 

2.  The •  of  the  theatre  is  not  great. 

3.  He  has  much  • as  a  student  but  not  much 

as  a  teacher. 

4.  The  chairman  did  not  have  the  to  control  the 

convention. 

5.  The  test  will  show  your  • as  a  stenographer. 

6.  The  work  requires  a  particular  kind  of  — — . 

AVOCATION,    VOCATION 

1.  In  the  selection  of  a a  young  man  should  use  great 

care. 

2.  Trout  fishing  is  a  pleasing . 

3.  Lawn  tennis  was  the  young  doctor's  • . 

4.  The  doctor  was  v-ery  successful  in  his . 

5.  While  in  college,  base-ball  was  his ;  but  later  in 

life,  it  became  his . 

6.  Golf  is  the of  many  professional  men. 

AMOUNT,  NUMBER,  QUANTITY 

1 .  The  government  employs  a  large of  persons. 

2.  What of  coal  did  j^ou  burn  last  year? 

3.  We  saw  a of  children  playing  in  the  street. 


42  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

4.  What of  money  did  you  lose? 

5.  The  storm  destroyed  a of  houses. 

6.  Brazil  exports  a  large  • —  of  coffee. 

7.  A  great of  persons  visited  Chicago  in  1893. 

8.  The  man  bought  a  ■ of  books  and  a of 

paper. 

9.  A  large of  butter  is  made  "in  New  York  State. 

10.  Delaware  produces  a  large  ~ — of  peaches. 

11.  The of  hogs  killed  annually  in  Chicago  is  more 

than  eight  million. 

ANSWER,    RESPONSE,    REPLY 

1.  His  — to  the  question  was  correct. 

2.  The  lawyer's  • to  the  argument  was  impressive. 

3.  This  • — will  confirm  the  settlement  that  you  suggest. 

4.  The  • to  the  question  was  short,  but  the •  to 

the  objection  was  long. 

5.  We  shall  • your  letter  to-morrow. 

ADMITTANCE,    ADMISSION 

1.  The  thief  gained to  the  house  through  an  open 

door. 

2.  The  requirements  for to  colleges  vary. 

3.  He  gained  — — ■ — —  to  the  best  society. 

4.  Apply  for  — — to  the  show  at  the  office. 

5.  The — —  of  the  territory  as  a  state  was  opposed. 

ARGUMENT,    PLEA 

1.  The —  of  the  prisoner  to  the  court  was  self  defence. 

2.  During  the  la\vyer's  — to  the  jury  the  prisoner  wept. 

3.  Some  lawyers  can  outline  a  strong  — •  but  cannot 

present  it  forceiuUy  to  the  jury. 

ASSERTION,    STATEMENT 

1.  This  needs  some  better  proof  than  mere to  make 

us  believe  it. 

2.  The of  the   bank  was  satisfactory  to  the  stock- 

holders. 

3.  We  have  heard  strong ■  without  proof. 

4.  The  prisoner's  — —  was  found  to  be  untrue. 

5.  The  petition  contain(.'d  a  clear of  their  objections. 


NOUNS    SOMETIMES    MISUSED  43 

ACCEPTANCE,    ACCEPTATION 

1.  The- of   the   gift  places  you  under  obligations  to 

him. 

2.  The  — — ■ — -  of  his  resignation  is  expected. 

.3.  In  its  common '^by  and  by"  means  never. 

4.  Time  l)rings  about  a  change  in  the — ■ ■  of  many  words. 

5.  The  lawyers  did  not  agree  concerning  the  legal of 

many  words. 

6.  The  — of  the  terms  of  peace  ended  the  hostilities. 

7.  The of  a  draft  makes  the  acceptor  liable  for  its 

payment. 
S.  The  character  of  the  members  of  the  committee  justifies 
our —  of  their  report. 

LESSON  12 

NOUNS  SOMETIMES  MISUSED— Continued 

CENTER,    MIDDLE 

Center  is  a  point  equally  distant  from  the  extremities  of 
a  line  or  from  all  parts  of  the  circumference  of  a  circle.  Middle 
is  not  so  definite. 

COMPLEMENT,    COMPLIMENT 

Complement  is  that  which  completes;  full  quantity,  number, 
or  amount.  A  compliment  is  an  expression,  by  word  or  act, 
of  praise  or  approbation. 

COUNCIL,    COUNSEL 

A  council  is  an  assembly  of  persons  convened  for  delib- 
eration. Counsel  is  advice  or  one  who  gives  advice,  especially 
in  legal  matters. 

CUSTOM,    HABIT 

A  custom  is  the  frequent  repetition  of  some  act.  Habit  is 
the  involuntary  tendency  to  do  certain  acts,  acquired  by  their 
frecjuent  I'epetition. 


44  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN   ENGLISH 

COUPLE,    PAIR 

Couple  means  two  of  the  same  kind  connected  or  con- 
sidered together.  Pair  is  apphed  to  two  correspondent  parts 
or  things  that  depend  on  each  other. 

CONSCIENCE,   CONSCIOUSNESS 

Our  conscience  is  our  judgment  of  right  and  wrong.  Con- 
sciousness is  the  state  of  knowing  one's  own  existence/ sen- 
sations, etc. 

COMPLETION,    COMPLETENESS 

Completion  is  the  act  or  process  of  making  complete. 
Completeness  is  the  state  of  being  complete. 

DECEPTION,   DECEIT 

Deception  refers  to  the  act  of  deceiving.  Deceit  is  a  trait 
of  character. 

DEPOT,    STATION 

A  depot  is  a  place  for  the  storage  or  transfer  of  goods.  A 
station  is  an  established  place  or  building  serving  as  a  starting- 
point,  or  stopping  place,  as  on  a  railway. 

EMIGRATION,    IMMIGRATION,   MIGRATION 

Emigration  is  the  moving  from  one  country  for  the  purpose 
of  settling  in  another.  Immigration  is  the  moving  into  a  country 
for  the  purpose  of  settling  in  that  country.  A  person  who  leaves 
his  fatherland  is  an  emigrant  from  it  and  an  immigrant  to  the 
country  in  which  he  settles.  Migration  refers  to  the  change  of 
dwelling-places,  usually  for  short  periods  only,  and  applies  to 
animals  as  well  as  to  persons. 

EXERCISE  12 

Write  the  number  of  each  sentence  and  the  correct  word. 

CENTER,    MIDDLE 

1.  There  is  a  crack  running  down  the of  the  wall. 

2.  A  table  stood  in  the —  of  the  room. 


NOUNS    SOMETIMES    MISUSED  45 

3.  A  path  runs  througli  the of  the  park. 

4.  In  the of  the  garden  was  a  fountain. 

5.  The  arrow  struck  the of  the  target. 

COMPLIMENT,    COMPLEMENT 

1.  The  captain  has  obtained  the of  his  crew. 

2.  The of  an  angle  is  the  difference  between  the  angle 

and  a  right  angle. 

3.  Present  my to  Mr.  Brown. 

4.  The  ship  has  its of  stories. 

COUNCIL,    COUNSEL 

1.  He  is  a  member  of  the  common 


2.  All  the  priests  and  elders  took against  him. 

3.  The   king  found  his  — as  refractory  as  his  judges. 

4.  The for  the  defense  filed  many  exceptions. 

5.  He  gave  us  wise . 

CUSTOM,    HABIT 

1.  The  observance  of  Mothers'  Day  is  a  beautiful — . 

2.  Cigarette  smoking  is  a  very  injurious . 

3.  It  is  good —  to  speak  softly;  it  will  soon  become 

a . 

4.  It  was  the of  Scotch  Highlanders  to  go  bareheaded. 

COUPLE,    PAIR 

1.  The  girl  had  a of  apples  in  her  basket. 

2.  He  bought  a of  new  shoes. 

3.  A  ■ of  spectacles  lay  on  the  table. 

4.  Did  3'ou  see  the  bridal ? 

CONSCIENCE,    CONSCIOUSNESS 

1.  Many  believe  that is  our  highest  guide. 

2.  The  pain  was  so  great  that  the  injured  man  lost 


3.  The of  ^^Tong  caused  the  prisoner  to  confess. 

4.  Our is  accompanied  A\dth  feeling  of  approbation 

and  condemnation. 

COMPLETION,    COMPLETENESS 

1.  We  hope  for  the of  the  new  railroad  by  January. 

2.  The  comfort  of  passengers  is  secured  by  the of 

the  equipment. 


46  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

3.  The of  his  collection  of  books  was  suprising. 

4.  The of  the  tunnel  was  celebrated  by  a  banquet. 

5.  The —  of  the  canal  was  a  great  stimulus  to  commerce. 

DECEPTION,    DECEIT 

1.  • — ■ — ■ is  no  longer  considered  a  good  business  i:)rinciple. 

2.  The  beauty  of  his  character  was  destroj^ed  by . 

3.  The  man  won  our  confidence  by . 

4.  He  was  friendly  to  man  and  far  from  — . 

5.  Talleyrand  was  despised  for  his 


6.  The  American  Indian  was  a  master  in  the  art  of — • — . 

7.  • is  of  the  very  nature  and  essence  of  sin. 

DEPOT,    STATION 

1.  We  arrived  at  the after  the  train  had  departed. 

2.  Our  goods  are  now  in  the . 

3.  The  new  — in  New  York  is  a  magnificent  building. 

4.  The ,  with  all  its  stores,  was  destroyed. 

5.  Our  train  left  Grand  Central ,  New  York  at  10.45. 

EMIGRATION,  IMMIGRATION,  MIGRATION 

1 .  Some  European  countries  encourage to  the  United 

States. 

2.  Some  persons  think  that  unrestricted is  one   of 

the  perils  of  our  nation. 

3.  — is  one  of  the  causes  of  the  increase  in  our  pop- 

ulation. 

4.  Pericles  tried  to  get  rid  of  the  superabundant  population 

by  encouraging . 

5. —  of  a  foreign  population  is  not  always  a  benefit 

to  the  moral  condition  of  a  nation. 

6. • has  reduced  the  population  of  Ireland. 

7. from  Italy  is  filling  the  Argentine  Republic  with 

Italians. 

8.  The of  birds  is  an  interesting  study. 


NOUNS    SOMETIMES   MISUSED  47 

LESSON  18 

NOUNS  SOMETIMES  MISUSED— Continued 

EKROR,    MISTAKE,    BLUNDER 

An  error  is  an  unintentional  deviation  from  correctness.  A 
mistake  is  an  error  in  judgment,  or  perception.  A  blunder  is 
a  gross  error  resulting  from  carelessness,  stupidity  and  unex- 
cusable  ignorance. 

ENORMITY,    ENORMOUSNESS 

Enormity  is  used  of  deeds  that  are  opposed  to  order,  right, 
or  decency.     Enormousness  is  used  of  things  of  unusual  size. 

ESTIMATION,    ESTIMATE 

Estimation  and  not  esteem  should  be  used  in  the  sense 
of  ''opinion"  or  "regard."  An  estimate  is  an  approximate 
judgment. 

FALSITY,    FALSENESS 

Falsity  is  that  Avhich  is  untrue  without  suggesting  Vjlame. 
Falseness  is  nonconformity  to  truth  and  usually  implies  blame. 

HESITATION,    HESITANCY 

Hesitation  is  slowness  in  forming  an  opinion  or  in  reach- 
ing a  decision.     Hesitancy  is  the  habit  of  hesitating. 

IMPORT,    IMPORTANCE 

Import  refers  to  meaning;  importance  refers  to  the  quality 
of  being  important. 

INVENTION,    DISCOVERY 

Invention  is  used  of  that  which  is  new  or  jiroduced  for  the 
first  time.  Discovery  applies  to  that  which  existed  before  but 
which  was  unknown. 


48  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

IDENTITY,    IDENTIFICATION 

Identity  means  the  condition  of  being  the  same.  Iden- 
tification is  the  act  of  determining  what  a  given  thing,  or  who  a 
given  person  is. 

LIMIT,    LIMITATION 

Limit  means  the  utmost  extent.  Limitation  means  the 
act  of  limiting  or  a  restriction. 

MAJORITY,    PLURALITY 

Majority  means  more  than  half  of  a  given  number.  Plu- 
rality means  the  excess  of  the  highest  number  of  votes  cast  for 
any  one  candidate  over  the  next  highest  number. 

EXERCISE  13 

Write  the  number  of  each  sentence  and  the  correct  word. 

ERROR,  MISTAKE,  BLUNDER 

1.  The  bookkeeper  found  the in  his  work. 

2.  The  stenographer  made   several  in  transcribing 

her  notes. 

3.  The  business  man  will  not  employ  a  bookkeeeper  who  makes 


4.  The of  the  inexperienced  man  were  very  funny. 

ENORMITY,  ENORMOUSNESS 

1.  The of  the  building  surprised  the  visitors. 

2.  The of  the  prisoner 's  crimes  caused  the  lynching. 

3.  The of  the  Titanic  caused  some  to  think  the  boat 

would  not  sink. 

4.  The of  the  murder  of  the  German  minister  in  Pe- 

king is  unparalleled. 

0.  The of  the  project  to  build  a  railway  across  Siberia 

did  not  deter  Russia  from  building  it. 

ESTIMATION,  ESTIMATE 

1 .  The of  the  cost  of  doing  the  work  seems  reasonable. 

2.  The  advance  of  civilization  is  marked  by  a  more  reasonable 

of  women. 


NOUNS   SOMETIMES   MISUSED  49 

3.  He  was  held  in  high by  those  who  knew  him. 

4.  What  was  the of  the  cost  of  New  York's  under- 

ground railway? 

FALSITY,  FALSENESS 

1.  Truth  is  the  opposite  of ,  but  error  is  the  same  as 


2.  Captain  Carter 's placed  him  in  prison. 

3.  Arnold  was  despised  for  his . 

4.  We  have  seen  the of  that  supposition. 

5.  The of  his  reasoning  is  evident. 

6.  Piety  is  opposed  to . 

HESITATION,  HESITANCY 

1.  When  angry, in  reaching  a  decision  is  wise. 

2.  is  the  cause  of  many  failures. 

3.  The of  the  prisoner  in  answering  questions  made 

an  unfavorable  impression. 

4.  He  was  a  man  of  indecision  and . 

IMPORT,  IMPORTANCE 

1.  The   prisoner  did   not   know  the  of  the  judge's 

sentence. 

2.  The  deliberations  of  the  Paris  Peace  Commission  were  of 

the  highest to  Cuba. 

3.  They  were  engaged  in  work  of  the  highest . 

4.  She  heard  the  tolling  of  the  bell  and  trembled  at  its . 

5.  This  is  a  serious  business  and  of  great . 

6.  The  Eastern  question  was  of  grave  and  serious . 

INVENTION,  DISCOVERY 

1.  The of  America  by  Columbus  was  an  important 

event. 

2.  The  steam  engine  is  one  of  the  greatest . 

3.  The of  the  law  of  gravitation  was  made  by  Newton. 

4.  Before  the  of  the  telescope  little  was  known  of 

astronomy. 

5.  The of  electricity  has  revolutionized  our  methods 

of  transportation. 

6.  Gold  was in  California  in  1848. 

7.  GaHleo  is  celebrated  for  his  of  the  laws  of  the 

pendulum  and  for  his of  the  telescope. 


50  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

IDENTITY,  IDENTIFICATION 

1.  In  the  destruction   of  the  building,  many  bodies  were  so 

badly  burned  that  their ■  was  impossible. 

2.  Peter  the  Great  concealed  his and  learned  snip- 

building. 

3.  The  check  will  not  be  paid  unless  you  establish  your . 

LIMIT,  LIMITATION 

1 .  We  still  have  a of  the  right  to  vote. 

2.  The  students  were  permitted  to  walk  within  certain , 

but  the  time  for  their  so  doing  was  subject  to . 

3.  Washington    was    given    command    of    the    army    with 

few  • — — . 

4.  Power  upon  which  no are  imposed  soon  becomes 

tjTannical. 

5.  As  we  advance  in  life,  we  learn  the of  our  abilities. 

6.  The  Council  established  a  — — — —  upon  the  sale  of  intox- 

icating liquors  within  certain . 

MAJORITY,  PLURALITY 

1.  Brown  received  67  of  the  89  votes,  a  good 


2.  If  Brown  received  51  votes,  Smith  48,  and  Jones  40,  Brown 

is  elected  by  a not  by  a . 

3.  A  candidate  who  is  elected  by  a ■  may  not  have 

received  a . 

LESSON  14 

NOUNS  SOMETIMES  MISUSED— Continued 

NEGLECT,    NEGLIGENCE 

Neglect  is  the  act  of  neglecting.  Negligence  is  the  habit 
or  trait  of  neglecting  or  omitting  to  do  things 

NEWS,    TIDINGS 

News  is  general  in  its  nature  and  singular  in  number. 
Tidings  are  personal  and  the  word  is  used  usually  in  the  plural 
sense. 


NOUNS   SOMETIMES    MISUSED  51 

OBSERVANCE,    OBSERVATION 

Observance  is  the  act  of  celebrating.  Observation  is  the 
act  of  taking  notice  or  looking  at  intently. 

PARTY,    PERSON 

A  party  is  a  number  of  persons.  In  legal  usage,  however, 
party  means  a  person  wlio  enters  into  a  contract  or  an  agree- 
ment with  another.     A  person  is  a  human  being. 

PART,    PORTION 

Part  is  that  which  is  less  than  the  whole.  Portion  suggests 
the  idea  of  an  assignment,  an  allotment  or  a  share. 

PRETENCE,    PRETENSION 

Pretence  is  that  which  is  advanced  or  displayed  to  conceal 
that  which  is  real.  Pretension  is  that  which  is  intended  to  dis- 
play that  which  is  good. 

PATRON,    CUSTOMER 

We  should  associate  patron  with  the  arts.  Customer  is 
a  commercial  word  and  means  one  who  gives  his  custom  or 
trade  to  another. 

PRINCIPAL,    PRINCIPLE 

Principal  means  the  chief  or  leader;  one  who  takes  a  lead- 
ing part.     Principle  is  a  general  truth. 

PROPOSITION,    PROPOSAL 

A  proposition  is  that  which  is  proposed  for  discussion. 
A  proposal  is  that  which  is  offered  for  acceptance  or  rejection. 

EXERCISE  14 

Write  the  number  of  each  sentence  and  the  correct  word. 

NEGLECT,    NEGLIGENCE 

1.  Through  — — •  to  do  our  duty,  we  form  the  habit  of 


52  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES   IN   ENGLISH 


2.  The  house  showed  many  signs  of 

3.  is  a  costly  habit. 


4.  — ■  is  the  cause  of  many  accidents. 

5.  Without  their the  money  was  lost. 

6.  President  Taylor's  grave  in  Richmond  shows  evidence  of 


7.  is  an  unfortunate  trait  of  character. 

NEWS,    TIDINGS 

1.  The  public  was  eager  for from  the  disaster. 

2.  The    persons   who  had   friends    on   the    Titanic    awaited 

anxiously  for from  them. 

3.  I  bring  you  good of  great  joy,  which  shall  be  to 

all  the  people. 

OBSERVANCE,  OBSERVATION 

1.  A  strict  of  the  policies  of  the  corporation  was 

required. 

2.  Some  savages  have  marvelous  powers  of . 

3.  The of  the  rules  of  health  is  necessary  for  success. 

4.  After  his of  the  eclipse,  he  wrote  a  scholarly  paper 

on  the  subject. 

5.  The ■ —  of  Mothers'  Day  is  a  beautiful  custom. 

6.  Sailors  develop  high  powers  of . 

7.  A  party  went  from  Harvard  University  to  Georgia  for  the 

of  the  Solar  Eclipse. 

PARTY,    PERSON 

1.  It  seems  necessary  that  free  government  should  be  admin- 
istered by . 

2.  He  is  a of  excellent  reputation. 

3.  He  is  a  member  of  which . 

4.  Only  a is  capable  of  a  moral  act. 

5.  One  of  the to  the  contract  did  not  appear  in  court. 

6.  Two in  our were  lost. 

7.  How  many are  there  in  the ? 

8.  The of  the  first  part  hereby  agrees. 

PART,    PORTION 

1.  A -^  of  the  building  was  destroyed. 

2.  He  squandered  his of  the  estate. 


NOUNS    SOMETIMES    MISUSED  53 


3.  The  whole  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  all  its . 

4    A Qf  the  crew  was  saved. 

5.  What  part  of  the  play  did  you  enjoy  best? 

PKETENCE,    PRETENSION 

1.  The  goods  were  obtained  under  false ■ — . 

2.  Some  of  the  nobility  conspired  to  support  the  prince's 

to  the  throne. 

3.  Under  the •  of  friendship  he  obtained  my  consent. 

4.  With  a  few,  religion  may  be  a  mere . 

PATRON,    CUSTOMER 

1.  The  merchant's  — had  confidence  in  his  honesty. 

2.  We  desire  to  thank  our for  their  loyal  support. 

3.  Cromwell,  a  farmer  in  early  life,  was  a of  agri- 

culture. 

4.  In  the  age  of  Augustus,  sculpture  had  many . 

5.  J.  Pierpont  Morgan  has  been  declared  a  of  art 

and  letters. 

PRINCIPAL,    PRINCIPLE 

1.  The ■ — ■ —  rejoiced  at  the  success  of  his  students. 

2.  In  studying  a  ,  we  should  not  lose  sight  of  its 

application. 

3.  Both and  agent  were  found  guilty. 

4.  The  had  difficulty  in  teaching  the  students  the 

of  cube  root. 

5.  Socrates  was  declared  a  teacher  of  false . 


PROPOSIHON,    PROPOSAL 

1.  His of  marriage  was  accepted. 

2.  The that  all  men  are  created  equal  is  not  under- 

stood by  all. 

3.  The  student  demonstrated  the of  geometry  very 

well. 

4.  Sealed for  paving  the  streets  were  received  by  the 

committee. 

5.  The that  the  men  receive  an  increase  in  wages 

was  accepted. 

6.  The  contractors  submitted  a for  street  cleaning. 


54  ■  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

LESSON  15 

NOUNS  SOMETIMES  MISUSED— Continued 

EEQUIREMENT,    REQUISITE,    REQUISITION 

A  requirement  is  a  necessary  condition  required  by  a 
person  or  persons.  A  requisite  is  a  condition  necessitated  by 
the  nature  of  things  or  by  circumstances.  A  requisition  is  an 
authoritative  demand  or  an  official  request. 

RELATIVE,    RELATIONSHIP,    RELATION 

A  relative  is  one  connected  by  blood  or  marriage.  Re- 
lationship is  the  state  of  being  related  by  kindred  or  alliance. 
Relation  is  the  state  of  being  related  but  is  broader  than  re- 
lationship and  does  not  necessarily  imply  kinship. 

SEWAGE,    SEWERAGE 

Sewage  is  the  waste  matter  carried  off  by  the  sewers. 
Sewerage  is  the  system  of  sewers. 

SITE,    SITUATION 

Site  is  applied  to  the  ground  on  which  something  is  erected 
or  on  which  something  reposes.  Situation  includes  the  local 
aspects  and  surroundings 

SOLICITUDE,    SOLICITATION 

Solicitude  is  the  state  of  being  uneasy  of  mind  or  anxious. 
Solicitation  is  the  act  of  soliciting  or  earnestly  asking. 

STIMULUS,    STIMULANT,    STIMULATION 

Stimulus  is  anything  that  rouses  the  mind  or  spirits  to  in- 
creased activity.  Stimulant  usually  has  a  medical  use  and 
means  that  which  excites  any  of  the  organs  of  the  body.  Stim- 
ulation is  the  act  of  stimulathig  or  the  condition  of  being  stim- 
ulated. 


NOUNS   SOMETIMES    MISUSED  55 

SERIES,    SUCCESSION 

Series  is  an  arrangement  of  one  thing  after  another  accord- 
ing to  a  law  or  rule  related  to  the  nature  of  the  things.  Suc- 
cession is  the  following  of  the  things,  one  after  another,  with- 
out implying  a  relation  or  connection. 

TESTIMONY,    EVIDENCE,   VERDICT 

Testimony  is  the  expression  of  persons  given  to  convince. 
Evidence  is  that  which  convinces  and  includes  not  only  the 
testimony  of  witnesses  but  also  all  facts  tending  to  prove  a 
thing  true.  A  verdict  is  the  decision  of  a  number  of  persons 
acting  as  one  body. 

EXERCISE  15 

Write  the  number  of  each  sentence  and  the  correct  word 

REQUIREMENT,    REQUISITE,    REQUISITION 

1.  The  ■  for  admission  to  college  are  more  difficult 

than  they  once  were. 

2.  One  of  the  ■ — ■ — • — — •  of  success  is  good  health. 

3.  That  students  of  stenography  have  a  good  English  educa- 

tion is  a  wise . 

4.  The  work  of  the  stenographer  is  such  that  a  practical  knowl- 

edge of  English  is  a  — — ■ — ■ — -. 

5.  The  governor  issued  a for  the  escaped  prisoner. 

6.  The  agent  sent  a  monthly  ■ — — — ■ — •  for  supplies. 

7.  Honesty  is  one  of  the  first for  success  in  business. 

8.  A  sound  body  is  one  of  the  first for  success  in  the 

army. 

9.  The  general  made  frequent  —  on  the  commissary 

department. 

RELATION,    RELATIONSHIP,    RELATIVE 

1.  We  should  confine  our  cares  to  ourselves  and — . 

2.  He  has  many  — — ■ — — ■  living  in  the  cit}'. 

3.  There  is  a  vital between  experience  and  knowledge, 

4.  The of  mother  to  child  is  sacred. 

5.  The of  the  moon  to  tides  is  not  definitely  known. 


56  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

6.  President  Lincoln  and  Colonel  John  Hay  always  had  very 

pleasant with  each  other. 

7.  Abigail  Dodge  was  one  of  James  G.  Blaine's . 

SEWAGE,  SEWERAGE 

1.  To  dispose  of  the of  a  large  city  is  a  great  problem. 

2.  Many  rivers  receive  the of  large  towns. 

3.  Fifty  thousand  dollars  was  spent  to  improve  the 

of  the  city. 

4.  The  heavy  rain  damaged  the greatly. 

5.  Boston  has  an  elaborate system. 

6.  The  Chicago  Drainage  Canal  takes  the  of  that 

great  city  away  from  Lake  Michigan. 

SITE,    SITUATION 

1.  The  school  building  has  a  pleasant . 

2.  In  selecting  the of  a  building,  the should 

be  considered. 

3.  New  York  has  an  excellent  — ■ for  foreign  trade. 

4.  The of  the  fortifications  has  been  fixed. 

5.  The of  Rouen  is  wild  and  picturesque. 

6.  Beverly  Farms,  Massachusetts,  has  a  charming . 

SOLICITUDE,    SOLICITATION 

L  After  frequent the  man  was  given  employment. 

2.  The of  a  mother  for  her  child  is  not  appreciated 

by  all. 

3.  Each  pang  was  soothed  with  fond . 

4.  It  is  our  duty  to  resist  the of  evil. 

5.  Mary  made  threats  and  in  many  instances  caused  me  great 


STIMULUS,   STIMULANT,    STIMULATION 

1.  Competition  is  sometimes  a to  greater  effort. 

2.  His  nerves  were  shattered  by  the  constant  use  of 

3.  The of  conscience  is  always  beneficial. 

4.  The  woman  who  fainted  was  given  a . 

5.  Ambition  is  a to  great  action. 

6.  They  gave  the  exhausted  swimmer  brandy,  as  a 


7.  Whiskey,  ordinarily  a ,  is,  when  taken  in  excess,  a 

powerful  narcotic. 


PRONOUNS  57 

SERIES,    SUCCESSION 

1.  This  bank  note  belongs  to  the •  of  1912. 

2.  A of  festivities  followed  the  signing  of  the  treaty. 

3.  A —  of  promotions  followed  the  change  of  manage- 

ment. 

4.  A of  storms  followed  the  hot  day. 

5.  The  man's  arrest  followed  a •  of  thefts. 

TESTIMONY,    EVIDENCE,   VERDICT 

1 .  The of  the  witnesses  was  contradictory. 

2.  The — — -  of  the  jury  was  thought  to  be  just. 

3.  An  alibi  was  the that  cleared  the  accused  man. 

4.  The of  the  alienists  differed  surprisingly. 

LESSON  16 
PRONOUNS 

PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 

In  the  expression,  *'I  saw  him  yesterday,"  "1''  points 
definitely  to  a  single  person,  the  one  speaking,  without  naming 
the  person. 

In  the  sentence,  ''You  should  answer  the  letter  imme- 
diately," "you"  specifies  one  particular  person,  the  one  whom 
the  speaker  addresses. 

Likewise,  ''he"  in  the  sentence,  "He  did  his  duty,"  sig- 
nifies one  particular  person  who  may  have  been  named  before, 
not  the  speaker,  however,  nor  the  person  to  whom  something 
was  said. 

In  each  of  the  above  illustrations,  a  single  word  has,  like 
a  proper  noun,  indicated  a  person  without  naming  the  person. 

The  words  I,  you,  he,  she,  it,  and  they,  since  they  take  the 
place,  either  of  a  proper  or  of  a  common  noun,  have  been  called 
pronouns. 

A  word  that  is  used  in  place  of  a  noun  or  another  pronoun 
is  a  pronoun. 

With  the  exception  of  "it,"  and  sometimes  "they,"  the 


58  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

pronouns,  given  above,  refer  directly  to  some  person  or  persons 
and  are,  therefore,  personal  pronouns. 

A  pronoun  which  represents  the  speaker  or  speakers;  the  per- 
son or  persons  spoken  to;  or  the  person  or  persons,  the  thing  or 
things  spoken  of,  is  a  personal  pronoun. 

The  pronoun  "I"  should  be  capitalized  always. 

INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUNS 

In  the  sentences,  "Who  goes  there?'*  "Which  is  the  larger?" 
"What  is  the  thing  we  have  missed?  "the  words,  ''who,""  which" 
and  "what,"  take  the  place  of  common  nouns  and  their 
modifiers;  such  as,  "what  person,"  "which  object,"  "what 
thing."  In  the  above  sentence,  "who,"  "which,"  and  "what" 
are  interrogative  pronouns. 

A  pronoun  that  is  used  in  asking  a  question  is  an  interrog- 
ative pronoun. 

Interrogative  pronouns  are  used  also  in  indirect  questions; 
that  is,  questions  quoted  from  the  original  speaker  in  sentences 
suggesting,  but  not  asking,  questions;  as,  "He  asked  who  had 
done  the  work." 

RELATIVE   PRONOUNS 

In  the  sentences,  "They  found  the  book  that  was  lost" 
and  "The  trees  which  bend  over  the  river  are  willows,"  the 
words,  "that"  and  "which,"  connect  the  dependent  clauses 
to  the  words  modified  by  the  clauses,  and  are  relative  pronouns. 

A  pronoun  that  joins  a  dependent  clause  to  the  noun  or  pro- 
noun that  the  clause  modifies,  is  a  relative  pronoun. 

DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS 

In  the  sentences,  "This  is  the  one  I  like,"  "That  is  your 
duty,"  "These  are  mine,"  "Those  are  yours,"  the  words, 
"this,  "that,"  "these,"  and  "those"  simply  point  out  the 
thing  which  the  subject  represents,  "This  book, "     "That  act, " 


PRONOUNS 


59 


''These  apples,"  ''Those  pears,"  or  whatever  noun  may  be 
understood.     These  words  are  called  demonstrative  pronouns. 

A  pronoun  used  to  point  out  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of, 
is  a  demonstrative  pronoun. 

"This"  usually  refers  to  a  person  or  a  thing  near  at  hand 
or  near  in  thought;  likewise,  ''these"  refers  to  persons  or  things. 

"That"  is  used  to  direct  attention  to  a  person  or  a  thing 
more  remote  in  position  or  in  thought;  similarly,  "these" 
refers  to  persons  or  to  things. 

INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS 

In  the  sentences,  "Everybody  did  his  duty,"  "Nobody 
failed  to  pass  the  examination,"  "Something  has  happened," 
the  words  "everybody,"  "nobody,"  and  "something"  rep- 
resent not  a  definite  person  or  thing;  but  they  represent  an 
indefinite  number  of  persons  or  things.  Such  words  are  called 
indefinite  pronouns. 

A  pronoun  that  represents  an  indefinite  number  of  persons 
or  things,  is  an  indefinite  pronoun. 

Among  the  indefinite  pronouns  are  the  following:  each, 
either,  neither,  some,  any,  many,  few,  all,  both,  aught,  naught, 
such,  other,  each  other,  one  another;  also  the  compounds  of 
some,  any,  every,  and  no  with  one,  thing,  and  body;  as,  some- 
thing, anyone. 

EXERCISE  16 

Classify  the  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences,  as  sug- 
gested by  model. 


PER- 
SONAL 


INTER- 
ROGATIVE 


RELA- 
TIVE 


DEMON- 
STRATIVE 


INDEFI- 
NITE 


1.  Who  fears  to  soeak  the  truth? 

2.  Which  is  it  to  be? 

3.  What  is  the  dawn  without  the  view? 


60  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

4.  What  can  I  do  for  you? 

5.  I  mean  to  stand  upon  the  Constitution. 

6.  We  are  sure  to  find  something  here. 

7.  He  was  ever  precise  in  promise  keeping. 

8.  She  was  admired  by  all  who  knew  her. 

9.  They  say  best  men  are  molded  out  of  faults, 
to.  This  is  not  a  fit  place  for  you. 

U.  Those  who  have  known  grief  seldom  seem  sad. 

12.  They  had  few  books,  but  those  were  of  the  best. 

13.  We  work,  and  that  is  godlike. 

14.  All  would  live  long,  but  none  would  be  old. 

15.  Each  shall  give  us  a  grain  of  gold. 

16.  All  are  not  taken. 

17.  Much  may  be  said  on  both  sides. 

18.  None  but  the  brave  deserve  the  fair. 

19.  Nothing  is  rarer  than  a  word  in  its  right  meaning. 

20.  Who  was  Stonewall  Jackson? 

21.  What  was  the  dying  order  of  Captain  Lawrence? 

22.  Which  is  the  larger  planet,  Venus  or  the  Earth? 

23.  What  is  opportunity  to  the  man  who  can't  use  it? 

24.  Man  cannot  cover  what  God  would  reveal. 

25.  I  that  speak  unto  you  am  he. 

26.  Employ  anyone  who  applies. 

27.  Regions  that  have  no  vegetation  are  called  deserts. 

28.  Both  went  to  the  war,  but  neither  returned. 

29.  Show  me  the  butterfly  which  you  caught. 

30.  I  saw  what  he  was  doing. 

ERRORS  IN  THE  USE  OF  PRONOUNS 

1.  Do  not  use  the  pronouns  this  and  that  with  weak 
reference. 

Example. — Incorrect:  The  judge  asked  where  the  witness 
was.     The  lawyer  could  not  answer  that. 

Correct:  The  judge  asked  where  the  witness  was.  The 
lawyer  could  not  answer  the  question. 

2.  Do  not  use  a  pronoun  followed  by  its  antecedent  in 
parentheses. 

Example. — Incorrect:  If  Brown  struck  Smith,  there  is  no 
objection  to  his  (Smith's)  action  in  the  matter. 


PRONOUNS  61 

Correct:  If  Brown  struck  Smith,  there  is  no  objection  to 
Smith  *s  action  in  the  matter. 

3.  A  pronoun  should  not  be  used  to  refer  to  a  word  or  phrase 
that  has  not  been  expressed. 

Example. — Incorrect:  John  is  a  pianist,  the  study  of 
which  instrument  he  began  when  he  was  a  boy. 

Correct:  John  is  a  pianist.  He  began  the  study  of  the 
piano  when  he  was  a  boy. 

4.  A  pronoun  should  not  be  used  to  refer  to  a  noun  sub- 
ordinate in  use.     • 

Example. — Incorrect:  In  Dickens'  David  Copperfield,  he 
relates  incidents  in  his  own  life. 

Correct:  Dickens,  in  David  Copperfield,  relates  incidents 
in  his  owTi  life. 

5.  You  and  they  should  not  be  used  indefinitely. 
Poor:  They  had  a  wreck  on  the  railroad. 

Good:  There  was  a  wreck  on  the  railroad,  (or)  A  wreck 
occurred  on  the  railroad. 

6.  A  pronoun  should  not  be  placed  too  far  from  the  noun 
to  which  it  refers. 

DEFINITIONS 

A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  to  represent  a  noun  or  another 
pronoun. 

A  personal  pronoun  is  one  which  represents  the  speaker  or 
speakers;  the  person  or  persons  spoken  to;  the  person  or  persons, 
the  thing  or  things  spoken  of. 

An  interrogative  pronoun  is  one  which  is  used  in  asking  a 
question. 

A  relative  pronoun  is  one  that  joins  a  dependent  clause  to 
the  noun  or  pronoun  that  the  clause  modifies. 

A  demonstrative  pronoun  is  one  which  points  out  the  person 
or  thing  spoken  of. 

An  indefinite  pronoun  is  one  which  represents  an  indefinite 
number  of  persons  or  things. 


62  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

OUTLINE  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PRONOUNS 

1.  Personal 

2.  Interrogative 
Classes      ^j  3.  Relative 

4.  Demonstrative 

5.  Indefinite 

LESSON  17 
ADJECTIVES 

From  our  previous  study  of  modifying  elements,  in  lesson 
4,  we  have  learned  that  a  single  word  may  be  used  as  a  modifier. 
We  shall  now  study  words  which  modify  nouns  and  pronouns. 

In  the  sentences,  "Diligent  students  are  successful,"  ''Dil- 
atory students  are  unsuccessful,"  the  words,  ''diligent"  and 
"dilatory,"  divide  into  two  classes  the  persons  represented  by 
the  class  name  students. 

The  words,  "diligent"  and  "dilatory,"  limit  the  application 
of  the  word  "students"  by  expressing  certain  qualities  or  charac- 
teristics of  the  students. 

Diligent  students  or  dilatory  students  applies  to  fewer  per- 
sons than  students  alone. 

A  word  that  liynits  a  noun  by  expressing  quality  or  charac- 
teristic, is  a  descriptive  adjective. 

We  should  note  that  adjectives  which  denote  qualities 
that  always  belong  to  the  noun  do  not  limit;  as,  white  snow, 
blue  sky. 

If  we  say,  "the,"  "that"  student,  or  "some,"  "many," 
"ten"  students,  we  do  not  name  any  quality  or  character- 
istic of  students;  but  "the,"  "this,"  or  "that"  points  out  a 
particular  student  and  limits  the  word  student  to  the  one  pointed 
out;  "some,"  "many,"  or  "ten"  limits  the  words  in  respect 
to  the  number  of  students  that  it  denotes. 

A  word  that  limits  a  noun  by  pointing  out,  numbering,  or 
denoting  quantity  is  a  definitive  adjective. 


ADJECTIVES  63 

Definitive  adjectives  may  be  divided  into  two  classes: 

1.  Numerals — The  numerals  are  the  adjectives  which 
express  number.    . 

The  numerals  are  divided  into:  Cardinals  or  the  ones 
used  in  counting;  as  ten,  forty,  etc. ;  ordinals,  those  that  show  the 
order  of  anything  in  a  series;  as  tenth,  fortieth;  fractional 
those  that  denote  one  of  a  certain  number  of  equal  parts;  as 
a  tenth,  a  fortieth;  multiplicatives,  those  which  show  how  many 
times  anything  is  taken;  as,  forty-fold,  fifty-fold. 

2.  Pronominals — The  pronominal  adjectives  are  pronouns 
which  are  used  as  adjectives. 

Pronominal  adjectives  are  divided  into:  demonstrative, 
interrogatives,  relative,  and  indefinite. 

The  demonstrative  adjectives  are  this,  that,  these,  those, 
yon,  yonder. 

Example. — Each  man  did  his  duty. 

The  interrogatives  are  which  and  what. 

Example. — Which  lesson  did  you  study? 

The  relatives  are  which  and  what. 

Example. — I  know  which  lesson  you  studied. 

Most  of  the  indefinite  pronouns,  with  a  few  other  similar 
words,  may  be  used  as  indefinite  adjectives.  The  most  com- 
monly used  are  the  following:  Each,  every,  either,  neither, 
some,  any,  many,  few,  all,  both,  no,  such,  and  other. 

Adjectives  derived  from  proper  nouns  are  called  proper 
adjectives;  such  as,  American,  Bostonian.  (Proper  adjectives 
should  be  capitalized.) 

Any  descriptive  adjective  which  is  not  proper  is  said  to  be 
common. 

Sometimes  two  or  more  words  are  used  as  an  adjective; 
and,  when  so  used,  they  are  said  to  form  a  compound  adjec- 
tive. The  words  forming  a  compound  adjective  should  be  joined 
with  a  hyphen;  as,  first-class  students,  long-distance  runner. 


64  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES   IN    ENGLISH 

ARTICLES 

A,  AN,  THE 

The  definitive  adjectives  *'a,"  ''an/'  and  *'the''  are  called 
articles. 

*' An"  is  used  before  a  vowel  sound;  *'a''  before  a  consonant. 
Some  writers  use  ''an"  before  words  beginning  with  a  pro- 
nounced h;  as,  an  historian  an  hjrpothesis;  but  present 
use  favors  a. 

''An"  or  "a"  is  used  to  limit  a  noun  to  one  thing  of  a  class. 
"The"  is  used  to  distinguish  one  thing  or  several  things  from 
others,  and  one  class  of  things  from  other  classes. 

We  may  say  "a.  book, "  meaning  any  one  book;  but  we  can- 
not say  "This  is  a  good  kind  of  a  book,'^  because  "book"  is  here 
meant  to  denote  the  whole  of  a  class,  and  "a"  limits  its  noun 
to  one  thing  of  a  class.  We  should  say  "This  is  a  good  kind 
of  book.''  "A"  or  "an"  should  not  be  repeated  before  the 
second  term  of  a  comparison  when  both  terms  refer  to  the  same 
person  or  thing;  as,  "He  is  a  better  scholar  than  teacher." 

If  two  or  more  connected  adjectives  modify  different  nouns, 
expressed  or  understood,  "an,"  "a,"  or  " the "  should  be  used 
before  each  adjective;  if  the  adjectives  modify  the  same  noun, 
the  article  should  not  be  repeated. 

"A  red  and  a  white  flag"  means  two  flags — one  red  and 
the  other  white. 

"A  red  and  white  flag"  means  one  flag  partly  red  and 
partly  white. 

Connected  nouns  naming  things  that  are  to  be  distinguished 
should  each  be  preceded  with  an  article;  as,  "a  noun  and  a 
pronoun  are  alike  in  use. " 

"A"  has  a  peculiarity  when  used  before  "few"  and 
"little."  "Few"  means  not  many^  but  "a  few"  means  some. 
"Little"  means  72ot  much,  but  "a  little"  means  so?ne. 


ADJECTIVES  65 

EXERCISE  17 

Classify  the  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences,  as  sug- 
gested by  model. 

DESCRIPTIVE       !  DEFINITIVE 


common    l       proper  article        numerals      pronominal 

1.  Every  hour  of  every  day  has  its  duty. 

2.  Both  candidates  are  good  men. 

3.  Iron  pillars  support  many  heavy  structures. 

4.  Swedish  iron  makes  the  best  steel. 

5.  The  army  had  rations  for  two  days  only. 

6.  The  storm  lasted  three  days. 

7.  The  necessity  for  haste  seemed  to  cause  a  hundred-fold 

dela}^ 

8.  What  is  the  name  of  yonder  mountain? 

9.  What  book  have  you? 

10.  He  believes  whatever  idle  rumor  he  may  hear. 

11.  Both  doctors  said  the  same  thing. 

12.  Which  states  were  admitted  during  Grant's  administration? 

13.  Much  harm  may  be  done  by  a  few  thoughtless  words. 

14.  We  saw  five  tall  soldiers  in  gay  red  uniforms. 

15.  These  tall  shrubs  bear  many  large  white  flowers. 

16.  Few  persons  are  good  economists  of  their  fortune. 

17.  The  first  step  to  greatness  is  to  be  honest. 

18.  The  rugged  cliff  has  a  thousand  faces. 

19.  These  little  things  are  great  to  little  men. 

20.  Every  flock  contains  some  black  sheep. 

21.  Both  rivers  rise  in  the  same  plateau. 

22.  This  park  contains  forty-four  acres. 

23.  Eight  men  were  on  that  committee. 

24.  No  man  knows  all  things. 

25.  There  are  no  shade  trees  on  either  side  of  that  street. 

26.  Few  and  short  were  the  prayers  he  said. 

27.  The  Christian  religion  is  spreading  rapidly. 

28.  The  British  colonies  are  loyal  to  the  crown. 

29.  The  Persian  rug  was  beautiful. 

Write   the   following   sentences   making   the   needed    cor- 


rections. 


66 


LESSONS   AND   EXERCISES   IN   ENGLISH 


1.  We  saw  a  strange  kind  of  a  bird. 

2.  There  is  a  difference  between  the  sin  and  sinner. 

3.  Woman  is  the  equal  of  a  man. 

4.  Do  you  like  this  kind  of  a  pen? 

5.  He  always  has  some  kind  of  an  explanation. 

6.  There  are  a  few  pleasant  days  in  March,  because  it  is  a 

stormy  month. 

7.  Idlers  always  have  some  sort  of  an  excuse. 

8.  Distinguish  carefully  between  an  adjective  and  adverb. 

9.  The  lion,  as  well  as  tiger,  belongs  to  the  cat  tribe. 

10.  The  Northern  and  Southern  Hemisphere. 

11.  The  right  and  left  hand. 

12.  The  fourth  and  fifth  verse. 

13.  Oak  is  harder  than  the  maple. 

14.  Dog  is  a  quadruped. 

15.  Churchill  received  the  title  of  a  duke. 

Indicate  whether  "a''  or  ^'an"  should  be  used  with  each  of 
the  following,  and  give  reason. 


hero 

uniform 

inheritance   account 

umpire 

hundred 

university 

enemy           heir 

usurper 

hook 

yew  tree 

owl                 hour    , 

history 

historian 

unit 

umbrella       hysterical  laugh 

ocean 

hypothesis 

honest  man 

hard  apple 
DEFINITIONS 

An  adjective  is  a  word  which  modifies  the  meaning  of  a 
noun  or  a  pronoun. 

A  descriptive  adjective  limits  a  noun  by  expressing  quality 
or  characteristic. 

A  proper  adjective  is  a  descriptive  adjective  derived  from 
a  proper  noun. 

A  definitive  adjective  is  one  that  limits  a  noun  by  point- 
ing out,  numbering,  or  denoting  quantity. 

A  numeral  adjective  is  one  that  expresses  number. 

A  pronominal  adjective  is  a  pronoun  used  as  an  adjective. 


ADJECTIVES    SOMETIMES    MISUSED 


67 


OUTLINE  CLASSIFICATION  OF  ADJECTIVES 


I.  Descriptive 


1.  Common 

2.  Proper 


1.  Numerals 


II.  Definitive     < 


2.  Pronominals 


(a)  Cardinals 

(b)  Ordinals 

(c)  Fractionals 

^  (d)  Multiplicatives 

(a)  Demonstrative 

(b)  Interrogative 

(c)  Relative 

^  (d)  Indefinite 


LESSON  18 

ADJECTIVES  SOMETIMES  MISUSED 

AVERAGE,   ORDINARY 

Average  implies  an  arithmetical  computation.  Ordinary 
implies  that  which  is  usual  or  common. 

APT,    LIKELY,    LIABLE 

Apt  implies  a  natural  tendenc3^  Likely  refers  to  a  con- 
tingency regarded  as  very  probable  and  usually  favorable. 
Liable  refers  to  a  contingency  as  unfavorable. 

AGGRAVATING,    IRRITATING 

Aggravating  means  making  more  intense,  burdensome, 
heinous,  etc.     It  should  not  be  used  for  irritating  or  provoking. 

BOUND,    DETERMINED 

Bound  means  having  one's  course  directed;  being  obliged, 
or  under  necessity.     Determined  means  resolved  or  decided. 


68  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

CONTINUAL,    CONTINUOUS 

Continual  means  renewed  in  regular  succession;  often  re- 
peated; very  frequent.  Continuous  is  said  of  that  which  is 
extended  or  prolonged  without  separation  or  interruption; 
unbroken. 

CHILDISH,    CHILDLIKE,    PUERILE 

Childish  means  immature  or  weak ;  and  when  applied  to 
a  mature  person,  it  is  used  with  an  unfavorable  meaning;  child- 
like is  usually  used  in  the  moral  sense,  and  expresses  the  moral 
simplicity  of  a  child.  Puerile  like  childish,  when  said  of  mature 
persons,  is  uncomplimentary. 

CREDIBLE,    CREDITABLE 

That  which  may  be  believed  is  credible;  that  which  is 
worthy  of  approbation  is  creditable. 

COURAGEOUS,    BRAVE 

Courageous  means  characterized  by  courage ;  brave,  charac- 
terized by  bravery.  Courage  is  mental  or  moral;  bravery  is 
physical. 

CONTAGIOUS,    INFECTIOUS 

Contagious  applies  to  that  which  is  transmissible  b}^ 
contact.  Infectious  applies  to  that  which  is  transmissible 
by  contact  or  through  the  medium  of  water,  air,  clothing,  etc. 

CONTEMPTUOUS,  CONTEMPTIBLE 

That  is  contemptuous  which  shows  or  expresses  contempt; 
that  which  deserves  contempt  is  contemptible. 

EXERCISE  18 

Write  the  number  of  each  sentence  and  the  correct  word. 

■AVERAGE,    ORDINARY 

1.  The •  length  of  human  life  is  increasing. 

2.  The •  man  has  many  things  for  which  to  be  thank- 

ful. 


ADJECTIVES    SOMETIMES    MISUSED  69 

3.  The :  age   of   the   signers   of   the   Declaration   of 

Independence  was  nearly  forty-four. 

4.  The  ■ •  yearly  income  of  dentists  is  $1000.00. 

5.  Their  ■ —  duties  were  not  difficult. 

APT,    LIKELY,    LIABLE 

1.  Iron  is to  rust. 

2.  An  impetuous  speaker  is to  say  more  than  he  can 

prove. 

3.  The  ship  was to  sink  at  any  moment. 

4.  An  industrious  worker  is  — — —  to  succeed 

5.  Rulers  are  ■ •  to  be  killed. 

6.  Youth  is •  to  err. 

7.  An  intoxicated  engineer  is to  cause  a  wreck. 

8.  John  is to  learn  German. 

AGGRAVATING,    IRRITATING 


1.  His  manner  was . 

2.  The  remarks  of  the  student  were ■  to  the  teacher. 

3.  The  crime  was  committed  under circumstances. 

4.  The    officer  said  the  prisoner's  conduct  had  been  very 


BOUND,    DETERMINED 

1.  Because  the  people  were not  to  use  stamps,  the 

revenue  was  small. 

2.  We  are  • to   maintain  the   principles   of   public 

liberty. 

3.  He  is to  succeed. 

4.  We  are  ■ to  keep  our  engagement. 

5.  We  have  promised;  therefore,  we  are to  keep  our 

engagement. 

CONTINUAL,    CONTINUOUS 

1.  Space  and  time  are . 

2.  The  speaker  was  confused  by  the interruptions. 

3.  His  life  was  a  ■ pra^-er. 

4.  A •  beach  is  exposed  to  the beating  of  the 

waves. 

5.  Few  persons  have  the  power  of study. 


70  LESSONS  AND    EXERCISES   IN   ENGLISH 

6.  A procession  of  soldiers  marched  up  Pennsylvania 

Ave. 

7.  A siege  of  ten  months  caused  the  surrender. 

CHILDISH,  CHILDLIKE,  PUERILE 

1.  When  I  became  a  man,  I  put  away things. 

2.  Some  of  the  excuses  given  were . 

3.  Dr.  Eliot  is  a  man  of  • •  simplicity. 

4.  One  should  approach  him  with  • faith 

5.  in  a  youth  does  not  surprise  us. 

6.  The  old  man  showed impatience. 

7.  We  are  surprised  to  see  what  is in  a  man. 

CREDIBLE,    CREDITABLE 

1.  The  sinking  of  the  Merrimac  was  a act. 

2.  Some  of  the  narratives  of  social  conditions  are  not  • . 

3.  The  young  man  did  some writing. 

4.  The  story  told  by  the  prisoner  was  not . 

5.  Although  he  failed,  his  efforts  were . 

COURAGEOUS,    BRAVE 

1.  Words  that Raleigh  spoke. 

2.  The  soldier  should  be ;  the  office-holder . 

3.  Many men  were  slain  in  battle. 

4.  His  refusing  the  bribe  was  a act 

CONTAGIOUS,    INFECTIOUS 

1.  Fear  is  more than  ambition. 

2.  The garments  were  burned. 

3.  Some  ■ diseases  are  not . 

4.  Laughter  and  good  humor  are . 

CONTEMPTUOUS,   CONTEMPTIBLE 

1.  It  is for  a  man  to  take  advantage  of  a  child. 

2.  The  man's  face  bore  a look. 

3.  Stealing  is  a  ■ act. 

4.  The look  of  the  speaker  was  understood  by  the 

audience. 


ADJECTIVES    SOMETIMES    MISUSED  71 

LESSON  19 

ADJECTIVES  SOMETIMES  MISUSED— Continued 

DECIDED,    DECISIVE 

Decided  means  unwavering,  resolute,  emphatic.  De- 
cisive is  said  of  that  which  is  conclusive;  that  which  decides. 

DEATHLY,    DEADLY 

Deathly  means  having  the  appearance  of  death;  death- 
like. Deadly  is  said  of  that  which  is  capable  of  producing 
death. 

DESIROUS,   ANXIOUS 

Desirous  means  having  a  desire  or  experiencing  a  wish; 
anxious  means  feeling  a  painful  or  a  disturbing  suspense. 

DUMB,    STUPID 

That  which  has  no  power  of  speech  is  said  to  be  dumb; 
that  which  is  slow  of  apprehension  or  understanding  is  stupid. 

EMINENT,    IMMINENT 

Eminent  means  high  in  merit  or  estimation,  distinguished ; 
imminent  means  threatening  to  happen  at  once,  dangerous 
and  close  at  hand. 

EXTANT,    EXISTING 

That  is  extant  which  has  escaped  the  destroying  power  of 
time;  that  is  existing  which  has  existence. 

FUNNY,   ODD 

Funny  means  comical,  provoking  laughter;  odd  means 
unusual,  peculiar. 

HUMAN,  HUMANE 

Human  means  pertaining  to  mankind;  humane  means 
compassionate,  showing  helpfulness. 


72  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

HEALTHY,    HEALTHFUL,    WHOLESOME 

That  which  is  in  good  health  is  said  to  be  healthy.  That 
which  has  a  tendency  to  promote  health  is  healthful  or  whole- 
some.    Wholesome  is  commonly  applied  to  food. 

IDEAL,  BEAUTIFUL,  PRETTY 

Ideal  means  pertaining  to  or  existing  in  ideas;  beautiful 
means  having  the  qualities  of  beauty.  Pretty  means  pleasing 
in  form,  feature,  arrangement  or  design. 

EXERCISE  19 

Write  the  number  of  each  sentence  and  the  correct  word. 

DECIDED,    DECISIVE 

1.  Meade  won  a victory  at  Gettysburg. 

2.  The  man  spoke  in  a •  manner. 

3.  The  • •  victory  of  the  war  came  when  Richmond  fell. 

4.  Have  you  read  Creasy's  *' Fifteen Battles  of  the 

World?'' 

5.  He  felt  a aversion  to  going  on  the  water. 

DEADLY,    DEATHLY 

1.  All  the  seven sins  have  claimed  to  be  agents  of 

progress. 

2.  The stillness  was  broken  by  the  caw  of  a  crow. 

3.  Strychnine  is  a •  poison. 

4.  There  was  a  ■ stillness  in  the  house. 

5.  Your  hands  are cold. 

6.  The  bite  of  the  copperhead  is . 

DESIROUS,    ANXIOUS 

1.  None  are  so as  those  who  watch  and  wait. 

2.  The  most  • period  of  the  war  was  during  the  battle 

of  Gettysburg. 

3.  I  am  ■ to  have  the  debt  paid. 

4.  My  brother  is  ■ ■  of  buying  the  new  book. 

5.  He  was concerning  his  father's  health. 


ADJECTIVES    SOMETIMES    MISUSED  73 

DUMB,    STUPID 

1    God  is  not ,  that  he  should  speak  no  more. 

2.  A  boy  that  can't  learn  to  spell  must  be . 

3.  The  man  was  deaf  and . 

4.  I  was  struck with  fear. 

5.  As  a  sheep  before  her  shearers  is ,  so  He  openeth 

not  his  mouth. 

EMINENT,   IMMINENT 

1.  Daniel  Webster  was  an  — — - — ■ —  statesman. 

2.  The  foreign  ministers  in  Peking  were  in danger 

of  massacre. 

3.  When  the  wall  fell  the  firemen  were  in danger. 

4.  Lincoln  was man. 

5.  men  are  usually  simple  in  their  manner. 

EXTANT,    EXISTING 

1.  The  catalogues  still  show  how  extensively  the 

sciences  were  pursued. 

2.  Several  authentic  portraits  of  Washington  are . 

.  3.  Many  of  Cicero's  letters  are . 

4.  God  created  all •  things. 

5.  Many social  evils  should  be  eliminated. 

FUNNY,    ODD 

1.  It  is that  you  did  not  receive  an  invitation. 

2.  He  told  us  a story. 

3.  The  — — ■ — —  dresses  of  the  foreigners   attracted   much 

attention. 

4.  The  picture  of  "Uncle  Sam"  and  ''John  Bull"  was . 

5.  It  is that  we  do  not  hear  from  father. 

HUMAN,    HUMANE 

1.  A  great  library  contains  the  history  of  the race. 

2.  ''To  err  is ;  to  forgive,  divine." 

3.  Was  Christ or  divine? 

4.  The Society  tries  to  prevent  cruelty  to  children. 

HEALTHY,    HEALTHFUL,    WHOLESOME 

1.  Mutton  is food. 

2.  Tennis  is  a recreation  for  a  business  man. 


74  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 


3.  To  make beef,  a  steer  should  be 


4.  A  man  to  be  — - — - — —  should  eat  ■  food  and  live 

in  a ■  climate. 

5.  Farming  is  a ■ occupation. 

IDEAL,   BEAUTIFUL 

1.  This  is  a,  an day. 

2.  The  best  judges  of  art  alwa3^s  see  possibilities 

not  yet  attained. 

3.  This  is  a  — — - — ■ — -  specimen  in  botanj^ 

4.  Gray's  elegy  is  a poem. 

5.  The  landscape  was . 

6.  A  vase  of flowers  sat  on  the  table. 


LESSON  20 

ADJECTIVES  SOMETIMES  MISUSED— Continued 

IDLE,    INDOLENT 

A  person  who  does  nothing  useful  is  idle;  one  who  does 
nothing  at  all  is  indolent. 

IMPERATIVE,    IMPERIOUS 

That  which  is  authoratative  or  obligatory  is  imperative; 
that  which  is  domineering  or  overbearing  is  imperious. 

LATEST,    LAST 

Latest  is  said  of  that  which  comes  after  all  others  in  time; 
last  is  said  of  that  which  remains  after  all  others  in  space  or 
in  a  series. 

LENGTHY,    LONG 

Lengthy  is  used  commonly  of  discussions,  sermons,  and 
discourses,  and  usually  suggests  tediousness.  Long  is  said 
of  anything  that  has  length  or  relatively  great  line  or  extension. 

LESS,    FEWER,    SMALLER 

Less  applies  to  quantity,  fewer  to  number,  smaller  to  size. 


ADJECTIVES    SOMETIMES    MISUSED  75 

MAD,   ANGRY 

Mad  means  insane;  angry  means  feeling  anger,  moved  by 
violent  resentment. 

MUCH,    MANY 

Much  is  said  of  quantity;  many  is  said  of  num])er. 

MUTUAL,   COMMON 

Mutual  means  reciprocal  and  is  said  of  something  relating 
to  two  persons,  sides,  or  parties.  Common  is  said  of  some- 
thing relating  to  more  than  two  persons,  sides,  or  parties  alike. 

NEW,    NOVEL 

New  is  said  of  anything  recently  come  into  existence, 
of  that  which  is  not  old;  novel  is  said  of  that  which  is  strange 
or  unusual. 

NOTABLE,    NOTORIOUS 

That  which  is  distinguished  or  worthy  of  note  is  notable; 
that  which  is  widely  but  unfavorably  known  is  notorious. 

ORAL,    VERBAL 

Oral  is  used  of  that  which  is  spoken;  verbal  is  said  of  that 
which  is  expressed  in  words  either  spoken  or  written. 

PITIABLE,    PITIFUL 

That  which  may  be  or  should  be  pitied  is  pitiable;  that 
which  is  compassionate  is  pitiful. 

PRACTICABLE,    PRACTICAL 

That  which  can  be  put  into  practice  is  practical)le;  that 
which  is  not  theoretical  only  is  jDractical. 

PROBABLE,    PLAUSIBLE 

Probable  is  said  of  that  which  is  likely  to  happen;  plausible 
is  said  of  that  which  is  seemingly  true  but  open  to  doubt. 


7C)  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

PROMINENT,    PREDOMINATE 

Prominent  means  conspicuous,  standing  out  so  as  to  be 
easily  seen;  predominate  means  having  control,  suj^erior  in 
number,  power,  influence. 

EXERCISE  20 

Write  the  number  of  each  sentence  and  the  correct  word. 

IDLE,     INDOLENT 

1.  An  man  may  be  willing  to  use  his  mind;  an 

man  will  use  neither  his  mind  nor  body. 

2.  Rip  Van  Winkle  was  an  — — - — —  fellow. 

3.  An  man  does  nothing  useful;  an  man 

does  nothing  at  all. 

4.  There  is  some  hope  for  the man,  but  very  little 

for  the one. 

IMPERATIVE,    IMPERIOUS 

1 .  To  earn  a  living  is  — — ■ — - — ■. 

2.  Napoleon's  orders  were — -,  and  his  manner . 

3.  The  general  spoke  in  an tone. 

4.  It  is that  immediate  action  be  taken. 

5.  That  we  study  diligently  is . 

LATEST,    LAST 

1.  What  time  does  the  — — train  leave? 

2.  Have  you  read  ''The ■  of  the  Mohicans?" 

3.  Do  not  be  ashamed  to  say  you  have  not  read  the 

novel. 

4.  What  is  the news? 

5.  We  saw  the automobile  race. 

LENGTHY,     LONG 

1.  His  address  was  a composition. 

2.  The  walk  from  home  to  school  is  not  a one. 

3.  We  were  wearied  by  the — ■ — ■  sermon. 

4.  The  journey  seemed . 

5.  We  took  a  — walk  after  dinner. 


ADJECTIVES    SOMETIMES   MISUSED  77 

LESS,    FEWER,    SMALLER 

1.  There  are  no than  ten  volcanoes  in  Mexico. 

2.  I  have  ■ books  than  you. 

3.  He  has  ■ ■  money  than  you. 

4.  Not  ■ than  twenty  persons  were  hurt  in  the  wreck. 

5.  This  is  the  • •  number  of  the  two. 

6.  You  waste  • •  time  than  he. 

7^  . .  students  attended  the  banquet  than  I  expected. 

8.  I  saw  not •  than  ten  birds  on  the  tree. 

MAD,   ANGRY 

1.  The  candidate  became  very . 

2.  The  ■ man  died  in  an  insane  asylum. 

3.  His  bad  conduct  makes  me . 

4.  Great  suffering  sometimes  makes  men . 

5.  Why  are  you ? 

MUCH,    MANY 

1.  •  inventions  are  patented  each  year. 

2.  NegUgence  is  the  cause  of  — accidents. 

3.  — failure  is  caused  by  ill  health. 

4.  How •  apples  did  you  buy? 

5.  He  blames  his  brother  for of  his  misfortune. 

MUTUAL,    COMMON 

1 .  David  loved  Jonathan,  and  Jonathan  loved  David ;  therefore, 

their  love  was  ■ . 

2.  His  trouble  is  yours,  and  your  trouble  is  mine;  therefore, 

our  trouble  is  ■ •. 

3.  The  individual  is  sometimes  sacrificed  for  the good 

of  all. 

4.  I  have  learned,  Mr.  Jones,  that  we  have  some • 

friends. 

NEW,    NOVEL 

1.  The  idea  of  having  a ''Carnation  Day"  was  a  

one. 

2.  We  had  many ■  experiences  in  the  crystal  maze. 

3.  John  has  bought  a  ■ •  overcoat. 

4.  A  ■ •  star  has  been  discovered. 

5.  The school  building  is  beautiful. 


78  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

NOTABLE,    NOTORIOUS 

1.  Jesse  James  was  a  • criminal. 

2.  Max  Miiller  was  a  • philologist. 

3.  Richard  Croker  was  a politician. 

4.  Washington  was  a statesman. 

ORAL,    VERBAL 

1 .  Contracts  may  be  • or  written. 

2.  Many  believe  in  the  — — ■ — —  inspiration  of  the  Bible. 

3.  Not  having  time  to  write,  the  general  sent  an  — — 

command. 

4.  A  few  • changes  have  beem  made  in  the  last  edition 

of  the  book. 

PITIABLE,   PITIFUL 

1.  When  you  see  a  person  in  trouble  be . 

2.  The  condition  of  the  exiles  at  St.  Helena  is . 

3.  The  condition  of  the  poor  is  often 


4.  The  lost  child  was  a ■  sight. 

5.  The  most sight  one  ever  sees  is  a  young  man  doing 

nothing. 

PRACTICABLE,    PRACTICAL 

1.  The  world  wants  men  who  have  a education  for 

work. 

2.  Many  now  think  aerial  navigation . 

3.  Communication  across  the  Atlantic  by  wireless  telegraphy 

seems  a  ■ •  scheme. 

4.  This  plan  of  work  is  not . 

5.  Edison's  inventions  are  of  a nature. 

PROBABLE,    PLAUSIBLE 

1.  The  story  sounded ,  but  we  did  not  believe  it. 

2.  It  is  by  this  mixture  of  truth  that  error  seems  • . 

3.  It  is  • that  the  patient  will  die. 

4.  Sometimes  impossibilities  seem . ' 

5.  It  is  • •  that  we  shall  go. 

PROMINENT,    PREDOMINATE 

1 .  The  English  settlers  were in  America. 

2.  Frogs  have  • eyes. 


VERBS  79 

3    A .  man  is  usually  censured. 

4.  The  Indian  race  is  marked  by  a  ■ — ■  of  the  cheek- 

bones. 

5.  Of  his  many faults,  which  is ? 

LESSON  21 
VERBS 

So  far,  we  have  considered  the  predicate  as  a  unit,  one  of 
the  two  essential  elements  of  the  sentence. 

If  we  study  the  predicate  more  closely,  we  shall  see  that 
it  may  be  divided  frequently  into  two  distinct  parts.  One  of 
these  parts  either  represents  an  act  in  a  general  way  or  shows 
a  relation  between  the  remaining  part  of  the  predicate  and  the 
subject  of  the  sentence;  the  other  may  represent  certain  mod- 
ifying powers  or  name  the  person  or  thing  acted  upon. 

If  we  say  *'John  cuts,"  the  word  ''cuts"  does  not  express 
all  we  mean  to  say  concerning  John.  The  predicate  is 
incomplete. 

If  we  say  *' John  cuts  wood,"  the  word  *'wood"  completes 
the  predicate  by  naming  that  which  receives  the  action  expressed 
by  the  other  part  of  the  predicate. 

*'Wood"  is  said  to  be  an  object  complement  and  ''cuts," 
a  transitive  verb. 

A  word  that  completes  a  predicate  by  naming  that  which  re- 
ceives the  action  expressed  by  the  verb  is  called  an  object  comple- 
ment. 

The  object  complement  is  also  called  the  direct  object  of 
the  verb. 

A  word  that  expresses  an  action  and  requires  an  object  com- 
plement to  complete  the  meaning,  is  a  transitive  verb. 

If  we  say  "This  rose  smells,"  the  predicate  is  incomplete. 
If  we  say  "This  rose  smells  sweet/'  the  word  "sweet"  completes 
the  predicate  and  modifies  the  subject  of  the  sentence.  "  Sweet " 
is  a  subjective  complement  and   "smells,"   a  copulative  verb. 


80  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

A  word  that  completes  the  predicate  and  refers  to  the  subject 
is  a  subjective  complement. 

A  verb  that  merely  asserts  relation  between  its  subject  and  a 
subjective  complement  is  a  copulative  verb. 

The  different  forms  of  the  verb  ''to  be" — am,  is,  are, 
was,  were,  will  be,  shall  be,  have  been,  has  been,  had  been — 
suggest  action  less  apparently  than  other  verbs;  and  because 
of  this  fact,  the  verb  ''to  be"  is  called  the  copula. 

Not  only  adjectives  but  also  nouns  may  be  used  as  sub- 
jective complements. 

Example. — This  is  a  man. 

An  adjective  used  as  a  subjective  complement  is  called  a 
predicate  adjective;  a  noun  so  used,  a  predicate  noun. 

Iri  the  sentence,  ''John  made  the  knife  sharp,"  "sharp" 
not  only  completes  the  meaning  of  the  predicate  but  also  mod- 
ifies the  object  complement  "knife." 

A  word  that  completes  the  predicate  and  modifies  the  object 
complement  is  an  objective  complement. 

Such  verbs  as  make,  choose,  call,  and  name,  frequently 
have  objective  complements. 

Sometimes  we  have  t\vo  or  more  of  the  same  kind  of  com- 
plements used  in  the  same  sentence  forming  a  compound 
complement. 

Example. — The  sun  gives  light  and  heat. 

Wm.  McKinley  was  a  statesman  and  a  diplomat. 

They  elected  John  Smith  secretary  and  treasurer. 

Frequently  a  verb  represents  an  action  complete  in  itself; 
such  a  verb  is  said  to  be  intra7isitive. 

Example. — John  studies. 

A  verb  that  does  not  require  an  object  complement  to  com- 
plete the  meaning  of  the  sentence  is  an  intransitive  verb. 

Some  verbs  may  be  used  either  transitively  or  intran- 
sitively. 

Example. — The  boy  ran  (intransitively). 


VERBS 


81 


The  boy  ran  the  horse  (transitively). 

In  the  sentence,  ''The  teacher  gave  John  a  book, "  "l)ook" 
is  the  direct  object  of  the  verb;  John,  however,  names  the  per- 
son to  ivhom  the  book  was  given,  and  we  call  "John"  the  in- 
direct object. 

A  word  representing  the  person  or  thing  to  or  for  whom  or 
which  an  action  is  performed,  is  an  indirect  object. 

Verbs  that  express  the  acts  of  givino:,  bringing,  showing, 
refusing,  telling,  sending,  lending,  ctc.jfrequentl}^  have  indirect 
objects  associated  with  them. 

We  may  now  say  that  a  verb  is  a  word  that  affirms  the 
action  or  existence  of  some  subject. 

EXERCISE  21 

Classify  the  verbs  and  the  complements  in  the  following 
sentences,  as  suggested  below. 

Example. — -John  gave  Mary  a  book. 


Subject 

Intransi- 
tive Verb 

Transitive 
Verb 

Object 
Comple- 
ment 

Indirect 
Object 

Subjective 
Comple- 
ment 

Objective 
Comple- 
ment 

1 .      John 

gave 

book 

Mary 

1.  The  sea  is  fascinating. 

2.  The  major  handed  the  servant  his  card. 

3.  The  lad  told  the  father  a  falsehood. 

4.  Every  teacher  has  a  diligent  pupil. 

5.  The  Turks  call  their  ruler  Sultan. 

6.  We  found  the  journey  long. 

7.  They  named  the  state  New  York. 

8.  We  gathered  her  a  bouquet. 

9.  The  stranger  asked  the  inn-keeper  many  questions. 

10.  Tubal  Cain  was  the  first  blacksmith. 

11.  The  longest  life  is  short. 

12.  They  made  him  umpire. 

13.  Napoleon  was  a  great  general. 

14.  I  will  write  him  a  receipt. 

15.  This  apple  is  sweet. 

16.  Napoleon  died  in  exile. 


82  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

17.  He  paid  the  men  the  wages.    • 

18.  They  called  him  chief. 

19.  Custom  renders  feelings  blunt. 

20.  The  church  appointed  the  pastor  delegate. 

21.  John  told  us  strange  stories. 

22.  The  clerk  wrote  many  letters. 

23.  The  owl  has  very  large  eyes. 

24.  Elizabeth  made  Raleigh  a  knight. 

25.  The  mountains  are  grand  and  tranquil. 

26.  Madame  de  Stael  called  architecture  frozen  music. 

27.  The  ant  is  never  idle. 

28.  Peter  Minuit  was  the  first  governor  of  New  York. 
29  Washington  was  a  punctual  man. 

30.  The  indulgent  father  bought  the  boy  a  watch. 

31.  James  studies  grammar 

32.  The  president  appointed  General  Grant  commander-in-chief. 

33.  The  task  was  difficult. 

34.  They  painted  the  house  red. 

35.  Victor  Hugo  was  a  French  author. 

Use  each  of  the  following  words  as  the  subject  of  a  sentence; 
and  in  each  sentence,  use  two  appropriate  adjectives  as  sub- 
jective complements: 

T^  i-ii  f  brittle  1  Glass  is  brittle  and 

Example.— Glass     (  ^  ^  f      ^ 

[  transparent  J      transparent. 

Flowers,  iron,  coal,  war,  peace,  education,  wood,  gold,  water, 
leather. 

Using  the  following  verbs,  as  predicates,  compose  sentences 
containing  objective  complements:  Choose,  appoint,  make, 
name,  elect,  find,  consider,  call. 

Using  the  following  verbs,  as  predicates,  compose  sentences 
containing  indirect  objects:  Ask,  read,  tell,  unite,  give,  buy, 
teach,  bring,  offer,  forward. 

DEFINITIONS 

A  verb  is  a  word  that  affirms  the  action  or  existence  of 
some  subject. 

A  transitive  verb  is  one  that  requires  an  object  comple- 
ment to  complete  its  meaning. 


VERBS   SOMETIMES   MISUSED  83 

An  intransitive  verb  is  one  that  represents  an  act  com- 
plete in  itself. 

The  copula  is  the  verb  "to  be/'  which  represents  existence 
or  state  of  being. 

An  object  complement  is  a  word  that  completes  the  pred- 
icate by  naming  that  which  receives  the  act  expressed  by  the 
verb. 

An  indirect  object  is  a  w^ord  which  represents  the  person 
to  or  for  whom  an  act  is  performed. 

A  subjective  complement  is  a  word  that  completes  the 
predicate  and  refers  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence.  Intransi- 
tive verbs  only  have  subjective  complements. 

An  objective  complement  is  a  word  that  completes  the 
predicate  and  refers  to  the  object  complement. 

LESSON  22 

VERBS  SOMETIMES  MISUSED 

ALLOW,   THINK 

To  allow  is  to  grant  or  permit.  To  think  is  to  produce 
or  form  by  mental  processes. 

ACCEPT,    EXCEPT 

To  accept  means  to  take  that  which  is  offered.  To  except 
means  to  leave  out  or  exclude. 

ACCREDIT,    CREDIT 

To  accredit  means  to  invest  with  authority,  to  furnish 
with  credentials.  To  credit  means  to  accept  as  true;  to  give 
credit  in  an  account. 

ARGUE,    AUGUR 

To  argue  is  to  give  reasons  for  or  against.  To  augur  is 
to  foretell,  to  predict. 


84  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

ADMIT,    CONFESS 

To  admit  is  to  concede  or  grant  to  be  true;  to  acknowledge 
the  truth  or  correctness  of  anything.  Admit  does  not  imply 
guilt.  To  confess  means  to  admit  one's  guilt.  We  confess 
a  sin,  crime,  weakness,  etc. 

ALLEVIATE,    RELIEVE 

To  alleviate  means  to  make  less  burdensome,  less  hard 
to  bear.     To  relieve  means  to  free  wholly  or  in  large  measure. 

AFFECT,    EFFECT 

To  affect  means  to  influence,  to  change  or  pretend.  To 
effect  means  to  cause  or  to  bring  about.  Effect  used  as  a  noun 
means  the  result. 

ADVERTISE,    ADVISE 

To  advertise  is  to  make  known  ])y  public  notice.  To 
advise  is  to  give  an  opinion  by  way  of  counsel;  to  give  advice. 

CONVINCE,    CONVICT 

To  convince  is  to  satisfy  by  evidence  in  respect  to  truth 
or  falsity.     To  convict  is  to  prove  or  pronounce  guilty. 

CONVOKE,    CONVENE 

To  convoke  means  to  call  together  by  summons.  To 
convene  is  to  come  together. 

EXERCISE   22 

Write  the  number  of  each  sentence  and  the  correct  word. 

ALLOW,   THINK 

1    He  would  not her  to  go. 

2.  1  — •  she  will  go. 

3.  The  judge  ■ an  appeal. 

4.  Vanity  relates  to  what  we  would  have  others of  us. 

5.  The  captain  did  not •  the  soldiers  to  cheer. 

•6.  I there  will  be  a  good  game  to-morrow 


VEKBS    SOMETIMES    MISUSED  85 


ACCEPT,    EXCEPT 

1 .  Spain  would  not the  $100,000,000  oiTered  for  Cuba 

by  our  government. 

2.  Jefferson  Davis  was  ■■ —  from  the  Amnesty  Procla- 

mation. 

3.  Will  you this  gift  from  me? 

4.  It  is  a  pleasure  to your  invitation. 

5.  In  saying  that  the  students  are  industrious,  I  •  a 

few. 

ACCREDIT,    CREDIT 

1.  Mr.  Edwin  H.  Conger  was as  minister  to  China. 

2.  We  could  not  ■ the  story  of  the  battle. 

3.  We  have  • ■  you  with  the  payment  of  ten  dollars. 

4.  The  reputed   agent  of  the  Boer   Republic  did  not  come 

properly — — -. 

5.  John  Brown  was  not for  his  payment. 

ARGUE,    AUGUR 

1.  E'en  though  vanquished,  he  could ■  still. 

2.  The  sudden  cloud  • •  a  coming  tempest. 

3.  To the  questions  at  this  time  is  useless. 

4.  This  change  in  policy  ■ better  things. 

5.  I  will  not the  question  with  you. 

ADMIT,    CONFESS 

1 .  The  sentence  I is  difficult. 

2.  I that  I  spoke  too  hastily. 

3.  He ■  that  he  had  stolen  the  coat. 

4    I  ■ •  that  John  stole  the  coat. 

5.  James that  he  could  not  work  the  problem. 

ALLEVIATE,    RELIEVE 

1.  Anaesthetics pain. 

2.  Water thirst. 

3.  The  widow's  cares  were  by  the  kindness  of  her 

friends. 

4.  He  gave  me  a  powder  to  my  headache. 

f).  Much  is  being  done  to ■  the  wants  of  the  poor. 


86  LESSONS   AND   EXERCISES   IN   ENGLISH 

AFFECT,    EFFECT 

1.  The  Panama  Canal  will •  great  change  in  trade 

between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  ports. 

2.  To •  a  favorable  verdict,  we  must  the 

minds  of  the  jury  men. 

3.  Measles  sometimes  ■ ■  the  eyesight. 

4.  He  was  greatly  ■ •  by  the  election. 

5.  What  he  planned,  he  • — . 

6.  The  report  of  the  cannon my  hearing. 

ADVERTISE,    ADVISE 

1.  When  I  hear  from  him,  I  shall you. 

2.  The  doctor exercise  in  the  open  air. 

3.  The  meeting  was  widely  ■ . 

4.  The  play  was  ■ ■  to  begin  at  half-past  eight  o'clock. 

5.  us  when  payment  is  due. 

CONVINCE,    CONVICT 

1 .  We  succeeded  in him  of  his  error. 

2.  The  judge  was  ■ that  the  man  was  guilty,  but  the 

jury  did  not  • ■  the  prisoner. 

3.  In  order  to  persuade  a  man,  you  must  first him. 

4.  He  is of  folly  by  his  own  speech. 

5.  We  were  unable  to the  man  that  he  was  wrong. 

CONVOKE,    CONVENE 

1.  A  special  session  of  the  Council at  8  o'clock. 

2.  The  president  of  the  class a  special  meeting. 

3.  At  what  time  shall  we  ■ — ? 

4.  Congress  will  • in  special  session  April  7. 

5.  Xerxes a  meeting  of  the  Persian  counsellors. 

LESSON  23 

VERBS  SOMETIMES  MISUSED— Continued 

CONSTRUCT,    CONSTRUE 

To  construct  means  to  build,  to  fashion,  to  devise.     To 
construe  is  to  interpret,  to  explain. 


VERBS    SOMETIMES   MISUSED  87 

CALCULATE,    INTEND 

To  calculate  means  to  compute  mathematically.  To 
intend  means  to  be  intent  upon;  to  have  in  view  as  a  purpose. 

CAPTIVATE,    CAPTURE 

To  captivate  means  to  charm,  win,  fascinate.  To  cap- 
ture means  to  take  prisoner. 

CARRY,    BRING 

To  carry  means  to  take  with  in  going.  To  brings  means 
to  take  with  in  coming. 

DRIVE,    RIDE 

We  drive  in  a  vehicle  drawn  by  horses  or  other  animals. 
We  ride  on  a  horse  or  other  animals. 

DISCOVER,    DISCLOSE 

To  discover  is  to  get  first  sight  or  knowledge  of  that  which 
was  previously  unknown.  To  disclose  is  to  bring  into  view, 
to  uncover. 

DETECT,    DISCRIMINATE 

To  detect  is  to  find  out  or  to  determine  the  existence 
or  presence  of.  To  discriminate  is  to  note  difference  or  to 
distinguish. 

DOMINATE,    DOMINEER 

To  dominate  is  to  control,  to  rule,  to  govern.  To  dom- 
ineer is  to  rule  or  to  control  unjustly. 

DEPRECIATE,    DEPRECATE 

To  depreciate  is  to  lower  the  price  or  value  of.  To  dep- 
recate is  to  plead  or  argue  earnestly  against. 

DEMAND,    ASK 

To  demand  means  to  ask  for  by  right  or  authority  to  in- 
sist upon.  To  ask  is  to  make  a  request,  to  express  a  desire  to 
or  for. 


88  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

ELICIT,   ELIMINATE 

To  elicit  is  to  draw  out  by  some  inducement.     To  elim- 
inate is  to  remove  or  to  cast  out. 

EXPOSE,    EXPOUND 

To  expose  is  to  bring  forth,  to  show.     To  expound  is  to 
explain. 

EXERCISE  23 

Write  the  number  of  each  sentence  and  the  correct  word. 

CONSTRUCT,    CONSTRUE 

1.  If  a  sentence  is  not  well  — — - — — -,  its  meaning  is  obscure. 

2.  How  do  you  ■ ■  this  passage  in  Shakespeare? 

3.  You  might  ■ ■  his  remarks  in  a  bad  sense. 

4.  God  gives  man  facts;  and  out  of  these  facts,  man 

the  sciences. 

CALCULATE,    INTEND 

1.  You  may the  area  of  the  field. 

2.  I •  to  do  my  duty. 

3.  He  • to  go  to  New  York  to-morrow. 

4.  Bradley  ■ the  velocity  of  light. 

5.  We •  to  get  a  good  price  for  the  potatoes. 

CAPTIVATE,    CAPTURE 

1.  Mark  Anthony  was  by  the  personal  attractions 

of  Cleopatra. 

2.  The  soldiers Lone  Star,  the  Indian  Chief. 

3.  Lieutenant  Gillmore  was  ■ by  the  Filipinos. 

4.  The  fort  was after  a  heavy  bombardment. 

5.  The  style  of  Washington  Irving •  our  attention. 

CARRY,    BRING 

1.  The  newspapers  of  the  day the  letter  of  Washing- 

ton into  every  home. 

2.  When  he  dieth,  he  shall  • ■  nothing  away. 

3.  What  shall  I  — you  from  the  store? 

4.  The  Spartan  was  to his  shield  home,  or  to  be 

borne  home  on  it. 


VERBS    SOMETIMES    MISUSED  89 

DRIVE,    RIDE 

1 .  I  went ing  with  John  in  his  new  carriage. 

2.  The  children  enjo^^ed ing  in  the  pony  cart. 

3.  While —ing  in  the  race,  the  man  was  thrown  from 

his  horse. 

4.  This  horse  was  always ;  he  has  never  been  in  har- 

ness. 

T).  The  twenty  miles  to  Winchester  was by  Sheridan 

at  fearful  speed. 

DISCLOSE,    DISCOVER 

1.  The  detectives the  plot  to  kill  the  President. 

2.  Did  the  man  • to  you  his  intentions. 

3.  The  mists  rolled  away ing  fertile  fields. 

4.  Columbus ■  America. 

DETECT,   DISCRIMINATE 

1.  Careful  writers the  merits  of  words. 

2.  A  good  cashier  is  able  to  ■ •  counterfeit  money. 

3.  I  cannot •  the  error  in  my  account. 

4.  The  inspector a  flaw  in  the  steel. 

5.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to between  right  and 

wrong. 

DOMINATE,    DOMINEER 

1.  The  English in  the  new  world. 

2.  Three  powers  there  are  that  the  world;  Fraud, 

Force,  and  Right. 

3.  To is  an  ungentlemanly  act. 

4.  The  man  ■ •  his  servants. 

DEPRECIATE,    DEPRECATE 

1 .  Both  parties war. 

2.  Do  not his  honor  by  what  you  say. 

3.  There  is  a  tendency  to •  the  works  of  great  men. 

4.  Those  who  fail  usually  ■ ■  the  work  of  those  who 

succeed. 

DEMAND,    ASK 

1.  The  mob the  release  of  the  prisoner. 

2.  He ■  me  where  I  lived. 


90  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

3.  The  price  is  so  low  that  we  must  •  payment  in 

advance. 

4.  The  robber •  their  money. 

ELICIT,    ELIMINATE 

1.  Moral  beauty a  tribute  of  reverence. 

2.  If   we  should  ■ from  history  all  its  heroism,  the 

record  would  be  barren. 

3.  The  lawyer  had  much  trouble  to the  facts  of  the 

case. 

4.  We  should  all  strive  to ■  the  worst  elements  from 

society. 

EXPOSE,    EXPOUND 

1.  Daniel  Webster  the  constitution  of  the  United 

States. 

2.  Martin  Luther the  Scriptures. 

3.  The  Lexow  Committee — sl  great  deal  of  vice  in  New 

York. 

4.  • this  matter  more  fully  to  me. 

5.  The  police  should •  vice. 

LESSON  24 
VERBS  SOMETIMES  MISUSED— (Continued 

ESTEEM,    ESTIMATE 

To  esteem  is  to  value  highly.  To  estimate  is  to  assign 
a  value. 

HIRE,   LET,   LEASE 

To  hire  means  to  obtain  the  use  of  a  thing  or  the  services 
of  a  person.  To  let  is  to  give  the  use  of.  To  lease  means  to 
grant  the  use  of  by  written  contract. 

IMPUTE,   IMPUGN 

To  impute  means  to  ascribe  or  attribute  to.  To  impugn 
means  to  call  in  question. 

INSURE,    SECURE 

To  insure  is  to  guarantee  indemnity  in  case  of  loss  or  dam- 
age.    To  secure  is  to  guard  from  danger,  to  make  safe. 


VERBS   SOMETIMES    MISUSED  91 

INVESTIGATE,    INQUIRE 

To  investigate  is  to  examine  with  care.  To  inquire  is  to 
ask  for  information. 

LET,    LEAVE 

Let  means  to  permit,  to  allow.  Leave  means  to  go  away 
from,  to  let  remain,  to  let  stay  or  continue. 

LOCATE,    FIND 

To  locate  means  to  place,  to  designate  the  site  or  place  of. 
To  find  means  to  come  upon  by  seeking,  to  arrive  at. 

PURPOSE,    PROPOSE 

To  purpose  means  to  intend,  to  resolve.  To  propose  is 
to  offer  for  consideration  or  acceptance. 

PREDICT,    PREDICATE 

To  predict  is  to  tell  or  declare  beforehand.  To  predicate 
is  to  assert  as  a  quality  or  an  attribute. 

PRESCRIBE,    PROSCRIBE 

To  prescribe  is  to  lay  down  as  a  guide,  or  rule  of  action. 
To  prbscribe  is  to  denounce,  to  condemn,  to  exile. 

PERSUADE,    ADVISE 

To  persuade  is  to  influence,  to  convince.  To  advise  is 
to  give  advice,  to  give  counsel. 

REPULSE,    REPEL 

To  repulse  means  to  drive  back  and  usually  implies  hos- 
tility. To  repel  means  to  force  or  keep  back  but  it  does  not 
imply  hostility. 

SUSPECT,    EXPECT,    ANTICIPATE,    INAUGURATE 

To  suspect  means  to  surmise,  to  mistrust.  To  expect 
is  to  look  forward  to  as  certain  or  probable.     To  anticipate 


92  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

means  to  have  a  foretaste  of,  to  realize  beforehand.     To  in- 
augurate means  to  invest  with  an  office. 

EXERCISE  24 

Write  the  number  of  each  sentence  and  the  correct  word. 

ESTIMATE,    ESTEEM 

1 .  That  which  is  highly  ■ —  among  men  is  an  abomina- 

tion in  the  sight  of  God. 

2.  I  shall  — — — —  it  a  favor,  if  you  will  write  me. 

3.  The  case  of  the  cable  was  ■ at  ^900,000. 

4.  At  what  amount  do  you  • ■  the  cost  of  the  building? 

HIRE,    LET,    LEASE 

1.  Rooms  to . 

2.  We  will  ■ — — ■ — —  our  house  during  the  summer. 

3.  Automobiles  to . 

4.  We a  good  horse. 

5.  Teams  to . 

G.  Boats  to  • — . 

IMPUTE,    IMPUGN 

1.  The   happy   all  their  success   to  prudence  and 

merit. 

2.  We  cannot  deny  the  conclusion  without  ing  the 

axioms  which  are  the  basis  of  its  demonstration. 

3.  The  judge •  the  man's  honesty. 

4.  He  ■ ■  his  promotion  to  faithfulness. 

INSURE,    SECURE 

1.  The  building  was ■  against  loss  by  fire. 

2.  The  canal  is •  by  strong  fortifications. 

3.  Many  devices  are  now  used  on  the  railroads  to ^— 

safety  to  the  passengers. 

4.  How  can  v/e happiness? 

5.  JMany  persons  were  not •  against  the  losses  in  the 

Chicago  fire. 

INVESTIGATE,   INQUIRE 

1.  Then  David •  of  the  Lord. 

2.  Franklin the  nature  of  lightning. 

3.  The  committee the  officer's  conduct. 


VERBS    SOMETIMES    MISUSED  93 

4. — — ■  the  way,  that  we  may  not  lose  ourselves. 

5.  A  committee  was  appointed  to the  matter. 

LET,    LEAVE 

1 .  Therefore  shall  a  man  ■  his  father  and  mother  and 

shall  cleave  unto  his  wife. 

2.  The  grape  gatherers some  grapes  on  the  vines. 

3.  Pharaoh  said,  *'T  will ■  you  go. " 

4.  Rise  up, us  go. 

5.  us  - — — ■  him  to  himself. 

6.  I  will  ■ •  you  know  my  answer  to-morrow. 

7.  •  the  dog  alone. 

8.  me  out  here. 

9.  They  — ■  the  decision  to  the  judges. 

LOCATE,    FIND 

1.  The  police the  missing  man  in  New  York. 

2.  He  — - — ■ ■  his  nephew  in  the  railway  station. 

3.  The  part  of  to^\Ti  in  which  the  capital  is  is  de- 

lightful. 

4.  The  emigrants  were in  the  Italian  quarter. 

PURPOSE,    PROPOSE 

1.  I to  relate  the  history  of  the  people  of  New  Eng- 

land. 

2.  I to  work  earnestly  this  term. 

3.  I that  we  go  fishing. 

4.  He  doesn't to  fail  this  time. 

5.  He a  toast  to  the  President  of  the  United  States. 

PREDICT,    PREDICATE 

1.  The  astronomers the  return  of  the  comet. 

2.  Ambition  may  be  ■  as  the  predominate   trait  in 

Napoleon 's  character. 

3.  The  old  man  — — ■ — -s  that  the  winter  will  be  cold. 

4.  Failure  to  the  campaign  was  •  by  the  council  of 

war. 

PRESCRIBE,    PROSCRIBE 

1 .  The  Puritans theatres. 

2.  Sulla  and  Marius  • — -  each  other's  adherents. 

3.  The  doctor ■  quinine. 


94  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

4.  The  number  of  electors  is by  law. 

5.  It  is  the  duty  of  each  state  to the  manner  of  vot- 

ing and  to  provide  the  ballot. 

PERSUADE,    ADVISE 

1.  I the  young  man  to  go  to  college,  but  I  could  not 

him  to  do  it. 

2.  I  am  almost to  follow  his  advice. 

3.  We  were  — —  of  the  risk. 

4.  I  shall  no  more thee. 

REPULSE,    REPEL 

1 .  Evil  thoughts  should  be . 

2.  The  charge  of  the  troops  was 


3.  The  maiden •  the  entreaties  of  her  lover. 

4.  Like  magnetic  poles each  other. 

5.  General  Meade General  Lee  at  Gettysburg. 

SUSPECT,   EXPECT,    ANTICIPATE,  INAUGURATE 

1 .  I  shall the  maturity  of  the  note  by  paying  it  now. 

2.  I that  he  is  deceiving  me. 

3.  The  President  will  be March  4th. 

4.  All  men to  die. 

5.  If  I  know  your  sect,  I your  argument. 

6.  I •  my  brother  to  visit  me  to-morrow. 

7.  I a  letter  from  father  today. 

8.  In  several  respects,   the   Mosaic   Law  modern 

science. 

9.  Do  you to  go? 

LESSON  25 
ADVERBS 

We  shall  now  study  another  class  of  modifiers,  which 
we  call  adverbs. 

In  the  sentence,  "The  horse  ran  rapidly,"  the  word  ''rap- 
idly" tells  the  manner  in  which  the  action  represented  by  the 
verb  is  performed;  and  we  call  ''rapidly"  an  adverb  of  maimer. 

In  the  sentence,   "The  man  conducts  his  business  very 


ADVERBS  95 

successfully,"  the  word  ''very"  modifies  the  adverb  ''success- 
fully" and  it  is  an  adverl)  of  degree. 

In  like  manner,  a  descriptive  adjective  may  be  modified  by 
an  adverb;  as,  "That  is  a  ve^y  beautiful  picture." 

We  may  now  say  that  a  word  that  modifies  the  meanijig  of 
a  verhy  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb,  is  an  adverb. 

Adverbs  may  have  a  somewhat  broader  use,  however, 
than  the  above  definition  permits. 

In  the  sentence,  "The  land  was  almost  out  of  sight," 
"almost"  modifies  the  meaning  of  the  phrase,  "out  of  sight." 

In  the  sentence,  "He  does  exactly  as  he  pleases,  "exactly" 
modifies  the  meaning  of  the  clause,  "as  he  pleases." 

It  is  difficult  to  classify  adverbs  satisfactorily. 

The  following  classification  based  on  meaning,  however, 
should  be  studied. 

1.  Adverbs  of  time  (answering  the  question,  when?) .  Now, 
today,  soon,  lately,  never,  yet,  when,  as,  after,  before,  hitherto, 
etc. 

2.  Adverbs  of  place  (answering  the  question,  where?). 
(1)  (From  w^hich?)  whence,  thence,  hence,  etc.  (2)  (To 
which?)  whither ,  thither,  hither,  elsewhere.  (3)  (At  w^hich?) 
here,  there,  yonder,  near,  within,  without,  wherein,  whereat, 
etc. 

3.  Adverbs  of  number  (answ^ering  the  question,  how 
often?).     Once,  daily,  repeatedly,  again,  often,  etc. 

4.  Adverbs  of  manner  (answering  the  question,  how?). 
Well,  so,  ill,  however,  slowly,  etc. 

5.  Adverbs  of  degree  (answering  the  question,  how  much?) . 
Much,  little,  almost,  nearly,  too,  verj^,  quite,  partly,  etc. 

6.  Adverbs  of  assertion  (To  what  extent  is  asserton  true 
or  untrue?) .  Surely,  probably,  possibly,  certainly,  not,  perhaps, 
trul}^,  indeed,  etc. 

According  to  use  we  have  the  following  classification : 


96 


LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 


1.  Responsives — (Adverbs  used  in  responding  to  questions). 
Yes,  yea,  no,  nay. 

2.  Interrogatim  adverbs — (Adverbs  used  in  asking  ques- 
tions) .     When,  where,  why,  how,  etc. 

3.  Conjunctive  adverbs — (Adverbs  which  join  dependent 
clauses  to  the  words  which  the  clauses  modify) .  When,  where, 
while,  why,  than,  since,  till,  before,  etc. 

A  conjunctive  adverb  used  with  the  value  of  a  relative 
pronoun  is  called  a  relative  adverb. 

Example. ^ — I  will  praise  thee  while  (at  the  time  in  which) 
I  live. 

He  died  in  the  house  where  (in  which)  he  was  born. 

The  adverb  "there"  is  often  used  idiomatically  in  the 
position  of  the  grammatical  subject;  and  when  so  used,  the 
subject  of  the  sentence /oZ/oit's  the  verb. 

Example.— There  is  no  royal  road  to  learning. 

EXERCISE  25 

Name  and  classify  the  adverbs  in  the  following  sentences. 


time 


place 


manner    degree  assertion    interrogative     conjunctive 


1.  A  great  writer  reveals  himself  everywhere. 

2.  Can  one  desire  too  much  of  a  good  thing? 

3.  The  plague  of  gold  strikes  far  and  near. 

4.  How  far  is  it  to  the  next  station? 

5.  The  boats  moved  slowly  down  the  river. 

6.  The  boy  does  not  behave  well. 

7.  The  man  very  nearly  missed  the  train. 

8.  He  is  due  now. 

9.  The  work  was  performed  skillfully. 

10.  He  converses  fluently  in  English. 

1 1 .  The  work  is  not  nearly  finished. 

12.  This  hat  is  too  small. 

13.  Men  can  be  great  when  great  occasions  call. 

14.  No  nation  can  be  destroyed  while  it  possesses  a  good  home 

life. 


ADVERBS  97 

15.  Why  should  the  spirit  of  mortal  be  proud? 

16.  It  is  certainly  true  that  very  few  birds  of  richly  colored 

plumage  are  found  here. 

17.  Almost  all  men  will  admit  that. 

18.  It  is  always  morning  somewhere  in  the  world. 

19.  He  who  judges  least,  I  think,  is  he  who  judges  best. 

20.  The  brook  still  flows  seaward. 

21.  We  were  clearly  shown  how  the  work  was  done. 

22.  Still  waters  are  commonly  deepest. 

23.  Brighter  days  are  coming  soon. 

24.  Lately  the  shops  have  been  closed  at  six  o'clock. 

25.  The  sun  is  always  shining. 

26.  We  looked  overhead,  and  stars  were  visible. 

27.  The  ships  sailed  thence  at  daybreak. 

28.  Nowhere  has  the  fountain  of  youth  been  found. 

29.  The  heart  often  becomes  weary. 

30.  Temptations  are  repeatedly  testing  us. 

31.  The  head  should  daily  grow  wiser. 

32.  Men  move  lazily  upon  the  wharf. 

33.  The  train  rushed  rapidly  through  the  darkness. 

34.  The  plans  were  promptly  executed. 

35.  The  sun  had  almost  set. 

36.  Our  ogre  was  only  a  tow-headed  bo3^ 

37.  The  engineer  was  somewhat  troubled  by  smoke. 

38.  Chance,  perhaps,  is  not  so  blind  as  it  is  all-seeing. 

39.  He  was,  indeed,  a  man  of  sterling  worth. 

40.  His  rights,  accordingly,  were  respected. 

ERRORS  IN  THE  USE  OF  ADVERBS 

Every  adverb  should  be  so  placed  that  the  reader  may 
associate  it  immediately  with  the  word  it -modifies. 

1.  The  adverbs  only,  merely,  just,  almost,  ever,  hardly, 
scarcely,  quite,  and  nearly  should  be  placed  next  to  the  words 
they  modify. 

Incorrect:  I  only  saw  two. 
Correct:  I  saw  only  two. 

2.  It  sometimes  makes  a  better  sentence  to  place  however, 
therefore,  nevertheless,  moreover,  etc.  within  the  sentence 
they  introduce  rather  than  at  the  beginning. 


98  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES   IN    ENGLISH 

Incorrect:  Mary  was  studious.  However,  Mary's  brother 
was  indolent. 

Correct:  Mary  was  studious.  Mary's  brother,  however, 
was  indolent. 

3.  Adverbs  that  are  appropriate  in  meaning  should  be  used. 
Incorrect:  It  is  awfully  nice. 

Correct:  It  is  very  nice. 

4.  The  adverbs  too,  pretty,  very,  and  exceedingly  may 
modify  only  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

Incorrect:  I  was  very  pleased  to  hear  from  you. 
Correct:  I  was  very  much  pleased  to  hear  from  you. 

DEFINITIONS 

An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  verb, 
an  adjective,  or  an  adverb. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  ADVERBS 

[l.  Time 
I  2.  Place 
3.  Number 


I .     According  to  meaning. 


II.     According  to  use. 


4.  Manner 

5.  Degree 

6.  Assertion 

1.  Responsive 

2.  Interrogative 

3.  Conjunctive 
[4.  Relative 


LESSON  26 

ADVERBS  FREQUENTLY  MISUSED 

ALONE,    ONLY 

In  earlier  English  alone  is  used  for  the  adverb  only;  it  is  now 
usually  used  in  the  sense  of  unaccompanied  by  other  persons 
or  things.     Onhj  may  be  used  both  as  adjective  and  as  adverb. 


ADVERBS    FRP]QUENTLY    MISUSED  99 

FIRST,    SECOND,    SECONDLY,    ETC. 

First  may  be  used  as  either  an  adjective  or  an  adverb. 
Second,  third,  etc.  are  adjectives;  secondly,  thirdly,  etc.  the 
corresponding  adverbs. 

GOOD,    WELL 

Good  is  an  adjective;  well  is  almost  always  used  as  an  ad- 
verb. Well  may  be  used,  however,  as  an  adjective.  It  is 
correct  to  say  ''  I  feel  well, "  because  "  I  feel  good  "  means  "  I  feel 
righteous. " 

LIKELY,    PROBABLY 

Likely  is  used  as  an  adjective  only,  except  in  the  phrase, 
"as  likely  as  not. "     Probablj^  is  an  adverb. 

MOST,    MOSTLY 

Most  denoted  tlie  greatest  number,  quantity-,  or  degree. 
Almost  is  used  in  the  sense  of  nearly. 

NEAR,    NEARLY 

Near  is  an  adjective;  nearly  is  the  corresponding  adverb. 

REAL,    REALLY 

Real  is  an  adjective  and  means  having  actual  existence. 
Keally  is  an  adverb. 

SOME,    SOMEWHAT 

Some  is  an  adjective;  somewhat  is  an  adverb. 

TWO,    TOO,    TO 

Too  is  an  adverb  and  means  in  excessi\'e  quantity,  number 
or  degree.  We  must  not  confuse  the  adverb  "too"  with  the 
adjective  "two"  or  the  preposition  "to." 


100  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES   IN    ENGLISH 

EXERCISE  26 

Write  the  number  of  each  sentence  and  the  correct  word. 

ALONE,    ONLY 

1.  Man  cannot  live  by  bread — . 

2.  Not  • King  Humbert  but  also  President  Carnot  was 

assassinated. 

3.  Washington — — •  seemed  to  have  the  qualifications. 

4.  Robinson  Crusoe  communed with  nature. 

5.  Virtue  — — - — — •  makes  us  happy. 

6.  Expectation  ends ■  in  heaven. 

7.  It  is  not  good  that  man  should  be . 

8.  The  citizens  — should  be  at  the  expense. 

9.  These  books  are  sold  in  sets . 

10.  By  chance  ■ did  he  escape  death. 

FIRST,    SECOND,    SECONDLY,    ETC. 

1.  There  are  two  cases:  ■ ,  when  the  terms  are  alike; 

■ when  they  are  unlike. 

2.  After  the  Black  Death,  the  following  changes  took  place: 

• ,  a  scarcity  of  workers  caused  wages  to  rise; 

• — ,  this  rise  in  w^ages  caused  employers  to  seek 

relief  from  Parliament. 

3.  My  • proposition  is  that  the  measure  is  unneces- 

sary; my  • ,  that  it  is  unjust;  my •,  that 

it  is  unconstitutional. 

4.  Let  us  consider  ■ how  we  shall  go;  ,  when 

we  shall  go; ,  where  we  shall  go. 

5.  I  shall  explain  first  the  essentials;  the  non-essen- 

tials. 

6.  The  • essential  is  honesty;  the ,  efficiency, 

the  ■ ,  promptness. 

7.  He- 'Suggested  that  we  rent  the  house; , 

that  we  buy  it. 

8.  Our consideration  should  be  the  investment;  the 

•  the  expense. 

GOOD,    WELL 

1 .  This  cake  tastes  • ■ — . 

2.  He  recites •. 

3.  You  do  not  look •  today. 


ADVERBS    FREQUENTLY   MISUSED  101 

4.  Do  you  feel ?  ,   :  ; 

5.  Your  hat  does  not  fit  — ■ — — - — ■. 

().  The  men  have  done  the  work  ■ — ■.  '•,  >     \ 

7.  John  ran in  the  race;  he  is  a  —       '  ^  ruTiner. 

8.  He  ran  as  — — ■  as  we  could  expect. 

9.  This  is  not  • writing  because  the  pen  does  not 

write  ■ . 


10.  She  sings  very 


LIKELY,    PROBABLY 


1.  It  will  • ■  rain. 

2.  There  will  be •  one  hundred  men  present. 

3.  It  seems •  that  he  will  go. 

4.  — — • he  will  go. 

5.  The  child  is to  die. 

6.  The  child  will  ■ ~  die. 

7.  The  industrious  man  is •  to  succeed. 

8.  The  lazy  student  will  • •  fail. 

9.  As  ■ as  not  you  will  miss  the  train. 

10.  •  you  will  miss  the  train. 

MOST,    ALMOST 

1.  Florida  is •  as  large  as  Michigan. 

2.  I  am  ■ •  persuaded  to  go. 

3.  all  flowers  are  beautiful. 

4^  .  flowers  are  beautiful. 

5.  He  goes  to  the  ball  game •  every  day. 

6.  The  boy  was ■  drowned. 

7.  We  study  our  lessons  ■ every  evening. 

8.  I  ■ •  caught  the  ball. 

9.  boys  like  to  go  to  the  circus. 

10. •  all  girls  like  to  play  with  dolls. 

NEAR,    NEARLY 

1.  The  work  is -finished. 

2.  We  are •  the  end  of  our  journey. 

3.  Our  school  term  is ■  over. 

4.  I  was  — — — — -  dro\^Tied. 

5.  He  is  not ■  so  heavy  as  you. 

6.  The  new  house  is  not  — - — — —  finished. 


102  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

7.  Ws  are  —■ — — —  the  end  of  our  vacation;  our  pleasure 

is  — — — - —  over. 

8.  The  man : missed  the  train. 

9.  It  is  not  — ' •  so  dangerous  to  travel  on  water  now 

as  it  was  years  ago. 
10.  Draw  the  line  as  ■ straight  as  possible. 

REAL,    REALLY 

1 . ^— —  heroes  do  not  boast  of  their  deeds. 

2.  This  is  not  — — ■ ■  amber,  but  only  something  like  it. 

3.  This  is  a  — — ■ — — -  instance  of  success. 

4.  I  am  — — ■  glad  to  see  you. 

5.  He  has gone. 

.  6.  He  is — — -  dead. 

7.  This  problem  is  • difficult. 

8.  We  had  a  — — — — ■  delightful  time. 

9.  Protestants  believe  that  the  bread  of  the  Lord's  supper 

is  not •  changed,  but  remains  ■ ■  bread. 

10.  I  am worn  out. 

SOME,    SOMEWHAT 

1.  They  were tired. 

2.  It  was  ■ difficult  to  ascend  the  mountain. 

3.  We  arrived sooner  than  we  expected. 

4.  good  has  been  done. 

5.  The  patient  is better  this  morning. 

6.  You  resemble  your  sister . 

7.  The  speaker  was confused. 

8.  The  man  spoke hastily. 

9.  The  — — — ■ —  steep  path  over  the  hill  was  little  trodden. 
10.  The  automobile  was damaged  in  the  accident. 

TOO,   TWO,    TO 

1.  •  much  of  joy  is  sorrowful. 

2.  This  pencil  is short. 

3.  We  arrived  at  the  station •  late. 

4.  The  woman  was  beautiful  and  good 


5.  There  are ways  of  working  the  problem. 

6.  Boys  are eager  to  be  men. 

7.  They  live long  who  outlive  happiness. 


ADJECTIVES    AND    ADVERBS  103 

8.  Can  one  desire •  much  of  a  good  thing? 

9.  He  was  — — ■ — —  much  astonished  to  reply. 

10.  The  procession  moved ■  slowly. 

11.  John  went ■ ■  school. 

12.  He  went  ■ — ■  town  yesterday. 

LESSON  27 
ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS 

Because  some  adverbs  are  formed  by  suffixing  "\y''  to 
adjectives  of  quality,  we  must  not  think  that  all  words  ending 
in  "ly"  are  adverbs  nor  that  all  adverbs  end  in  ^'\y.'^  We 
must  ever  remember  that  the  use  of  a  word  determines  its  part 
of  speech. 

We  have  learned  that  adjectives  modify  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns,  and  that  adverbs  modify  verbs,  adverbs,  and  adjectives.  We 
are  sometimes  in  doubt,  however,  whether  to  use  an  adjective 
or  an  adverb  after  the  verbs  look,  appear,  seem,  smell, 
feel,  taste,  sound.  Each  of  the  above  named  verbs  is  almost 
alwa^^s  followed  w4th  an  adjective  that  modifies  the  meaning 
of  the  subject.  As  a  rule,  when  some  form  of  the  verb,  *'to 
he,'^  can  be  substituted  for  the  verb  given,  the  adjective  should 
be  used;  when  such  substitution  can  not  be  7nade,  the  adverb 
should  be  used.  ''He  looks  cold"  means  ''He  is  cold;"  but 
"He  looked  coldly  on  the  suggestion"  means  his  manner  of 
looking  was  cold.  It  is  correct  to  say  ''I  feel  badly"  for  '1 
feel  ill,"  because  ''I  feel  bad"  means  ''I  feel  wicked."  It  is 
correct  to  say  ''I  feel  well,"  because  ''I  feel  good"  means 
"I  feel  righteous." 

EXERCISE  27 

Indicate  the  words  modified  and  the  modifiers  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences,  as  suggested  below. 

The  procession  moved  (slow)  (slowly.) 


104 


LESSONS   AND   EXERCISES   IN   ENGLISH 


WORD  MODIFIED 


MODIFIERS 


Noun 


Pronoun 

Verb 

Adverb 

moved 

Adjective    Adjective  '  Adverb 


slowly 


1.  Return  (quick)  (quickly). 

2.  Lightning  flashed  (vivid)  (vividly)  in  the  clouds. 

3.  Raise  your  umbrella  (quick)  (quickly). 

4.  The  street  was  washed  (bad)  (badly). 

5.  The  sun  shone  (bright)  (brightly). 

6.  It  disappeared  (sudden)  (suddenly). 

7.  The  birds  sang  (joyous)  (joyously). 

8.  Everybody  was  sleeping  (sound)  (soundly). 

9.  We  were  (serious)  (seriously)  alarmed  at  your  absence. 

10.  My  efforts  proved  to  be  (uncommon)  (uncommonly)  suc- 

cessful. 

11.  Speak  very  (distinct)  (distinctly). 

12.  You  read  too  (rapid)  (rapidly). 

13.  How  (quiet)  (quietly)  that  train  runs. 

14.  Our  exercises  must  be  more  (neat)  (neatly)  written. 

15.  She  looks  (beautiful)  (beautifully). 

16.  His  voice  sounds  (harsh)  (harshly). 

17.  Are  you  doing  (nice)  (nicely)  at  your  school? 

18.  It  looks  (bad)  (badly)  to  see  a  young  man  wasting  his  time. 

19.  I  feel  (bad)  (badly)  over  the  matter. 

20.  Velvet  feels  (smooth)  (smoothly). 

21.  How  (sweet)  (sweetly)  these  roses  smell. 

22.  How  (different)  (differently)  the  place  looks  now. 

23.  Speak  (slow)  (slowly)  and  (distinct)  (distinctly). 

24.  Are  you  feeling  (well)  (good)  this  morning? 

25.  John  looks  (bad)  (badly). 

26.  Arrange  the  words  (alphabetical)  (alphabetically). 

27.  He  breathes  (free)  (freely). 

28.  The  goods  are  selling  at  a  (remarkable)  (remarkably)  low 

price. 

29.  The  price  is  (considerable)  (considerablj^  reduced. 

30.  They  considered  the  application  (favorable)  (favorably) . 

31.  He  is  a  (remarkable)  (remarkably)  good  boy. 

32.  Under  his  management  the  business  was  managed  very  (suc- 

cessful) (successfully). 


ADJECTIVES    AND    ADVERBS  105 

33.  You  should  have  explained  your  proposal  more  (definite 

(definitely) . 

34.  Arrange  the  facts  (chronological)  (chronologically). 

35.  Do  not  decide  the  matter  too  (quick)  (quickly). 

36.  Run  (fast)  (fastly). 

37.  Write  us  (occasional)  (occasionally). 

38.  Send  the  goods  (direct)  (directly)  to  us. 

39.  The  boat  was  sailing  (slow)  (slowly). 

40.  The  boy  was  in  a  (terrible)  (terribly)  dangerous  position. 

41.  I  am  getting  along  (tolerable)  (tolerably)  well. 

42.  You  write  (plainer)  (more  plainly)  than  I. 

43.  You  have  been  (wrong)  (wrongly)  informed. 

44.  I  live  (free)  (freely)  from  care. 

45.  Walk  (quiet)  (quietly). 

46.  The  prisoner  acted  (independent)  (independently). 

47.  He  was  (ill)  (illy)  prepared  to  take  the  examination. 

48.  The  river  was  raging  (furious)  (furiously). 

49.  This  orange  tastes  (sour)  (sourly). 

50.  The  firemen  worked  (gallant)  (gallantly). 

51.  The  work  was  done  (easy)  (easily). 

52.  The  hound  bayed  (loud)  (loudly). 

53.  This  is  an  (exceeding)  (exceedingly)  cold  day. 

54.  How    (beautiful)    (beautifully)   Melba    looked,   and    how 

(sweet)  (sweetly)  she  sang. 

55.  I  have  a  (tolerable)  (tolerably)  heav}-  load  of  coal. 

56.  (Sure)  (surely)  you  can  do  it. 

57.  This  is  a  (remarkable)  (remarkabl^^)  concise  report. 

58.  The  prisoners  suffered  (terrible)  (terriblj-). 

59.  The  work  is  (ill)  (illy)  done. 

60.  This  is  a  (decided)  (decidedly)  good  plan. 

61.  The  Spanish  War  was  managed  (bad)    (badly)   from  the 

begiiming. 

02.  Speak  (quiet)  (quietly). 

63.  Sit  (quiet)  (quietly) ;  make  no  noise. 

64.  John  writes  (good)  (well). 

65.  The  stars  look  (cold)  (coldly)  to-night 

66.  Your  hat  fits  3'ou  (good)  (well). 

67.  The  w^ind  blew  (cold)  (coldly)  yesterday. 

68.  I  feel  (bashful)  (bashfully)  among  so  many  strangers. 

69.  We  reached  home  (safehO  (safe)  and  (sound)  (soundly). 

70.  The  young  man  appeared  (awkward)  (awkwardly). 


106  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

71.  The  fruit  looks  (good)  (well),  but  it  tastes  (bad)  (badly). 

72.  Matters  look  (bad)  (badly)  for  him. 

73.  How  (strangely)  (strange)  your  voice  sounds. 

74.  He  stood  (silent)  (silently)  and  alone. 

75.  The  bells  sound  (harsh)  (harshly). 

76.  The  river  ran  (smooth)  (smoothly). 

77.  The  engine  ran  (smooth)  (smoothly). 

78.  The  lady  looked  (cold)  (coldly)  as  she  passed  by. 

79.  The  lady  looked  (cold)  (coldly)  at  me  as  she  passed. 

80.  You  behave  very  (proper)  (properly). 

81.  The  boy  acted  (wild)  (wildly). 

82.  The  dead  man  looked  (fierce)  (fiercely  . 

83.  The  fire  burns  (bright)  (brightl}^). 

84.  The  tone  of  his  language  was  (decided)  (decidedly)  harsh. 

85.  She  is  a  (remarkable)  (remarkably)  beautiful  person. 

86.  The  soldiers  load  their  guns  (careful)  (carefully''. 

87.  The  stream  flow  (rapid)  (rapidly). 

88.  The  orator  spoke  (warm)  (warmly)  on  the  subject. 

89.  Your  voice  sounds  (different)  (differently)  from  your  broth- 

er's. 

90.  I  arrived  (safe)  (safely). 

LESSON  28 
PREPOSITIONS 

In  studying  tiie  modifying  elements  of  a  sentence,  we  have 
learned  that  one  of  these  elements  is  the  phrase. 

In  the  sentence,  "The  sting  of  the  hornet  is  painful,"  the 
phrase,  ''of  the  hornet,"  serves  as  an  adjective  to  modify  the 
meaning  of  the  noun  ''sting." 

In  the  sentence,  "The  man  went  into  the  house,''  the 
phrase,  "into  the  house,"  serves  as  an  adverb  to  modify  the 
verb. 

The  above  phrases  are  called  prepositional  phrases. 

If  we  analyze  prepositional  phrases,  we  see  that  each  phrase 
contains  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  the  noun  frequently  being  mod- 
ified by  an  adjective.  Each  phrase  also  contains  a  small  word 
such  as  "of,"  "into,"  ''by,"  "with. "     These  small  words,  which 


PREPOSITIONS 


107 


introduce  the  phrase,  will  be  found  to  show  somewhat  closely 
the  manner  in  w^hich  the  phrase  modifies  the  noun  or  verb  to 
which  the  phrase  is  related. 

A  "prepositional  phrase  is  a  group  of  related  words  consisting 
of  a  preposition  and  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  with  or  without  modi- 
fiers, and  having  the  use  of  an  adjective  or  an  adverb. 

If  a  prepositional  phrase  modifies  the  meaning  of  a  noun 
or  a  pronoun,  it  is  called  an  adjective  phrase;  as,  "People  of  in- 
telligence live  here."  If  the  phrase  modifies  a  verb,  it  is  called 
an  adverbial  phrase;  as,  ''He  came  in  hasted 

An  adjective  phrase  may  be  used  as  a  subjective  complement ; 
as  in  the  sentence,  ''  I  am  out  of  money. '' 

An  adjective  phrase  may  also  be  used  to  denote  possession; 
as  in  the  sentence,  ''The  farm  of  John  Smith  w-as  sold. " 

The  words  most  commonly  used  as  prepositions  are  the 
following:  about,  above,  across,  after,  against,  along,  among, 
around,  at,  before,  behind,  below,  beside,  between,  beyond, 
by,  down,  during,  except,  for,  in,  into,  of,  off,  on,  over,  past, 
round,  since,  through,  till,  to,  toward,  under,  until,  up,  upon, 
with,  without,  within. 

Sometimes  tw^o  or  more  words  are  taken  together  and  form 
a  phrase  preposition. 

The  phrase  prepositions  most  commonly  used  are:  ''ac- 
cording to,"  "in  front  of,"  '^instead  of,"  "account  of,"  "with 
regard  to"  "by  means  of,"  "on  account  of,"  "by  virtue  of," 
"in  consideration  of,"  "from  in  between." 

EXERCISE  28 

Classify  the  prepositional  phrases  in  the  following  sentences, 
as  suggested  below. 

Behind  the  wall,  a  line  of  soldiers  stood. 
ADJECTIVE  PHRASE  ADVERBIAL  PHRASE 


1.  of  soldiers  I  behind  the  wall 


108  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

1.  The  chimney  of  a  factory  loomed  against  the  sky. 

2.  A  chain  of  iron  fastened  the  boat  to  the  shore. 

3.  They  stayed  until  night  at  the  house  of  a  friend. 

4.  A  child  of  poverty  went  along  the  street  in  the  cold. 

5.  A  brigade   of  three  Hessian  regiments  was  stationed  at 

Trenton. 
G.  By  his  side,  stood  a  cabinet  of  ebony  and  silver. 

7.  In  the  morning,  a  message  was  sent  to  the  General. 

8.  At  ten  o'clock,  the  peoi^le  of  Boston  assembled  in  the  Old 

South  Church. 

9.  Flocks  of  birds  were  flying  through  the  air. 

10.  In  the  spring,  they  sailed  across  the  sea  and  found  homes  in 

the  New  World. 

11.  Many  water-lilies  with   broad  green  leaves  grew  in  the 

stream. 

12.  Judgment  is  forced  upon  us  by  experience. 

13.  A  pound  of  pluck  is  worth  a  ton  of  luck. 

14.  Labor  was  appointed  at  the  creation. 

15.  Nothing  great  was  ever  achieved  without  enthusiasm. 

16.  Journeys  into  the  interior  are  rarely  made. 

17.  Icebergs  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  melt  in  the  Gulf  Stream. 

18.  The  city  of  Rome  is  the  capital  of  Italy. 

19.  The  road  up  the  mountain  is  very  rocky. 

20.  Goods  for  that  firm  were  shipped  yesterday. 

21.  The  fort  near  the  city  was  captured  first. 

22.  Success  without  effort  is  impossible. 

23.  Admission  to  college  depends  on  attainments. 

24.  The  planet  with  the  rings  is  Saturn. 

25.  The  town  beyond  Lexington  is  Concord. 

Punctuation. — The  natural  position  of  the  prepositional 
phrase  is  following  the  word  it  modifies;  the  phrase,  however, 
can  be  made  more  emphatic  sometimes  by  being  placed  in 
some  other  position. 

A  prepositional  phrase  out  of  its  natural  position  or  not 
closely  connected  with  the  word  it  modifies  should  be  set  off 
by  the  comma. 

Example. — In  the  evening,  he  goes  home.  The  boy, 
in  the  meantime,  had  found  his  hat. 


PREPOSITIONS  109 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences : 

1.  In  the  beginning  God  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth. 

2.  The  man  having  gro^\^l  weary  rested  in  the  shade. 

3.  Will  you  call  for  me  at  ten  o'clock? 

4.  Notwithstanding  the  rain  we  started  on  our  journey. 

5.  Behind  the  wall  a  line  of  soldiers  stood. 

6.  In  a  prepositional  phrase  the  principal  word  is  a  noun  or 

a  pronoun. 

7.  Out  of  the  depths  have  I  cried. 

8.  During  the  day  he  wrote  many  letters. 

9.  As  to  this  man  I  have  nothing  to  say. 

10.  Between  the  two  mountains  lies  a  fertile  valley. 

1 1 .  Of  the  scenery  along  the  Rhine  many  travelers  speak  with 

enthusiasm. 

12.  He  went  at  the  urgent  request  of   the   stranger  for  the 

doctor. 

13.  He  went  from  New  York  to  Philadelphia  on  Monday. 

14.  In  the  dead  of  night  with  a  chosen  band  under  the  cover  of 

a  truce  he  approached. 

15.  England  in  the  eleventh  century  was  conquered  by  the 

Normans. 

16.  Amid  the  angry  yells  of  the  spectators  he  died. 

17.  For  the  sake  of  emphasis  a  word  or  a  phrase  may  be  placed 

out  of  its  natural  order. 

18.  In  the  Pickwick  Papers  the  conversation  of  Sam  Weller  is 

spiced  with  wit. 

19.  New  York  on  the  contrary  abounds  in  men  of  wealth. 

20.  It  has  come  down  by   uninterrupted   tradition  from    the 

earliest  times  to  the  present  day. 

21.  Birds  in  great  numbers  fly  over  this  grove. 

22.  Some  with  blue  plumage  have  dropped  a  handful  of  feath- 

ers for  me. 

23.  Quail  from  the  north  meet  jays  from  the  south. 

24.  There  are  eggs  in  the  nest  near  the  vine. 

25.  The  mother  bird  is  mottled  at  the  throat  and  along  the 

breast. 


110  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

LESSON  29 

PREPOSITIONS— Continued 

words  combined  with  prepositions 
(for  reference) 

Accept,  with  or  without  of. 

Access  to. 

Accommodate  one  thing  to  another;  a  person  with  a  thing. 

Accompanied  by,  with. 

Accuse  of  (not  with) . 

Acquit  of. 

Adapted  to,  sometimes  for. 

Admission  to  (access),  into  (entrance). 

Admit  to,  into,  of. 

Advantage  of,  over. 

Agree  with  (a  person),  among  (ourselves),  to  (proposal),  upon 

(a  thing),  in  (doing  something). 
Amuse  with,  at,  in. 
Angry  with  (a  person),  at  (a  thing). 
Anxious  for,  about,  sometimes  on. 
Appropriate  to. 
Approve,  with  or  without  of. 
Arrive  at,  in,  from. 

Ask  of  (a  person),  for,  sometimes  after  (a  person  or  thing). 
Attend  to  (listen) ,  upon  (await) . 
Bestow  on  or  upon. 
Call  on  or  upon  (a  person),  for  (a  person  or  thing),  at  (a  house), 

in  (question),  after  (a  person),  by  (a  name). 
Care  for,  about,  of. 

Charge  a  crime  against  or  on  a  person,  a  person  with  a  crime. 
Coincide  with. 

Compare  with  (in  quality),  to  (for  illustration). 
Comparison  with,  between. 
Concur  with  (a  person),  in  (an  opinion). 


PREPOSITIONS  111 

Confide  in  (a  person),  (a  thing  to  a  person). 

(Congratulate  on  or  upon. 

Connect  with  (an  equal),  to  (a  superior). 

Contend  with  (a  person),  for  (an  object),  against  (an  obstacle). 

Convert  into,  sometimes  to. 

Copy  from  (a  thing),  after  (a  person). 

Correspond  with,  to. 

Covered  by,  with. 

Danger  of,  sometimes  from. 

Deal  with,  rarely  by. 

Defend  from,  sometimes  against. 

Demand  of,  from. 

Depend  on  or  upon. 

Dependent  on. 

Desire  for,  of,  sometimes  after. 

Devolve  on  or  upon. 

Die  of,  sometimes  with  or  from  (a  disease) ,  by  (an  instrument) . 

Differ  among  (ourselves),  from  (one  another),  from,  sometimes 

with    (in   opinion),    about,    concerning    (a   question),    from 

(in  qualit}^. 
Difference  with  (a  person),  between  (two  tlnngs). 
Direct  to,  toward. 

Disagree  with  (a  person) ,  to  (a  thing  proposed) . 
Distinguished  for,  from,  sometimes  by. 
Enter  into,  in,  on,  upon. 
Entertain  by  (a  person) ,  with  (a  thing) . 
Equal  to,  with. 

Escape  from,  sometimes  out  of. 
FamiHar  to  (us),  with  (a  thing). 
Favorite  of,  with. 
Followed  by. 
Frightened  at. 
Glad  of,  rarely  at. 
Graduate  at,  from,  in. 


112  LESSONP.   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

Grieve  at,  for. 
Hatred  to,  of. 
Impatient  with  (a  person),  at  (one's  conduct),  of  (restraint), 

under  (affliction),  for  (sometliing  expected). 
Incorporate  into,  with. 
Indulge  with  (one  thing),  in  (habit). 
Inquire  after,  about,  concerning,  for,  into,  of. 
Insight  into. 

Introduce  to  (a  person),  into  (a  place). 
Intrust  to  (a  person),  with  (a  thing). 
Irritated  by  (a  person),  by,  sometimes  at  (an  action). 
Join  with  (an  equal),  to  (a  superior). 
Killed  by  (a  person),  with  (a  thing). 

Listen   for    (something   to   be   heard),  to    (something  heard;. 
Love  of,  for. 

Make  of,  out  of,  from,  with,  for. 
Married  to. 
Mix  with,  in. 
Mortified  with,  at. 
Name  after,  from  (not  for). 
Necessary  to,  for. 
Necessity  for,  of. 
Need  of  (not  for). 
Objection  to,  sometimes  against. 
Oblivious  of. 
Obtain  from,  of. 
Occupy  with,  by,  in. 
Offended  with,  at,  by. 
Opinion  on,  about. 
Opportunity  for,  of. 
Opposition  to. 
Originated  with,  in. 
Parallel  to,  with. 
Partake  of. 


PREPOSITIONS  113 

Partiality  to,  for. 

Pity  on. 

Possessed  of,  by,  with. 

Prefer  to,  rarely  before. 

Prejudice  against  (not  to,  for,  or  in  favor  of). 

Present  to. 

Protect  from,  against. 

Punish  by  (a  person),  with  (a  penalty),  for  (a  crime). 

Put  into,  in. 

Receive  of,  from. 

Recline  upon,  on. 

Rely  on  or  upon. 

Remedy  for,  sometimes  against. 

Repine  at  (w^hat  is),  for  (what  is  not). 

Respect  for,  to. 

Search  for,  after,  out. 

Seized  by  (a  person),  with  (illness). 

Sick  of,  with. 

Situated  on  (a  road) ,  in  (a  street) . 

Smile  at  (frequently  unfavorably),  upon,  or  on  (favorably). 

Surprised  at,  by,  sometimes  with. 

Surrounded  by,  with. 

SjTiipathize  with  (a  person),  in  (his  sorrow). 

Sympathy  with,  between,  sometimes  for. 

Think  of,  about,  sometimes  on. 

"V^exed  with,  at. 

Wait  for  (await),  on  or  upon  (attend). 

AVant  of,  with. 

Yoke  with. 

EXERCISE  29 

Write  the  number  of  each  sentence  and  the  correct  word. 

1 .  He  died ■  a  fever. 

2.  The  weather  was  conducive  • ■  my  pleasure. 

3.  The  storm  was  followed a  calm. 


114  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES   IN    ENGLISH 

4.  The  soil  of   Cuba  is  adapted  the  production  of 

sugar  cane. 

5.  He  was  accused  • •  the  crime. 

6.  She  died •  starvation. 

7.  You  may  rely  ^— — — ■ — -  what  he  says. 

8.  May  I  confide  — — ■ — ■ — •  his  honesty? 

9.  He  felt  an  abhorrence  • •  snakes. 

10.  There  is  need  ■ great  care. 

11.  Compare  your  work his  and  you  will  see  the  dif- 

ference. 

12.  The  sinner  had  been  compared  — •  a  goat. 

13.  He  went  in  search  • ■  gold. 

14.  The  man  should  attend  — — -  his  business. 

15.  He  was  accompanied  — ■  his  parents. 

16.  Fondness ■  flowers  was  his  leading  trait. 

17.  I  do  not  agree you;  therefore,  I  cannot  agree 

• •  your  proposal. 

18.  The  queen  bestowed  ■ Tennyson  the  title  of  baron. 

19.  The  University  conferred •  him  the  degree  of  Doc- 

tor of  Laws. 

20.  The  two  generals  conferred each  other. 

21.  She  is  conversant •  several  languages. 

22.  I  dissent  ■ ■  that  proposition. 

23.  She  has  a  taste  ■ ■  poetry. 

24.  Colonel  Waring  died  — — — —  fever  in  Havana. 

25.  Major  Logan  met  death  — — -  a  bullet. 

26.  General  Grant  died  ^- — ■ the  effect  of  a  tobacco  cancer. 

27.  John  P.  Altgeld  differed Theodore  Roosevelt  on  a 

financial  policy. 

28.  Cyrus  Field  was  vexed the  delay  caused  by  the 

breaking  of  the  cable. 

29.  President  McKinley  was  vexed Senator  Mason  for 

his  opposition. 

30.  The  man  was  sick  - — — — — -  typhoid  fever. 

31.  Abraham  Lincoln  was  a  martyr •  the  cause  of  Eman- 

cipation. 

32.  President  McKinley  prevailed Secretary  Root  to 

retain  his  position. 

33.  The  captain  was  overwhelmed attentions. 

34.  General  Miles  was  justifiably  offended ■ — — ■  the  attack 

on  his  character. 


PREPOSITIONS  115 

35.  The  child  was  named his  distinguished  uncle. 

36.  Chief  Justice  Fuller  dissented  ■ ■  the  opinion  of  his 

associates. 

37.  The  Transvaal  abounds •  gold. 

38.  Diamonds  abound Brazil. 

39.  Washington  could  accommodate  himself poor  sur- 

roundings. 

40.  The  prisoner  was  acquitted ■ the  charge. 

41.  General  Miles  was  adapted  — — - — — -  Indian  fighting. 

42.  The  man  was  angry  his  coachman,  and  angry 

■  his  horses. 

43.  Gladstone  may  be  contrasted Bismarck. 

44.  We  were  entertained   the   captain   a 

story. 

45.  Satan  is  compared  — •  a  raging  lion. 

46.  The  rapid-fire  gun  is  adapted  • •  mountain  fighting. 

47.  I  infer  • — ■  what  you  say  that  you  are  pleased. 

48.  This  apple  differs •  that  one. 

49.  I  differ  • —  you  on  these  questions. 

50.  We  were  disappointed  • •  the  play. 

51.  Franklin  could  accommodate  himself  the  most 

pinching  circumstances,  and  even  then  accommodate  a 
friend  ■ his  last  shilling. 

52.  Indirectly  you  will  be  able  to  exert  a  good  influence ■ — • 

him,  because  you  have  so  much  influence  ■ •  his 

employer. 

53.  He  arrived  • ■  time  to  take  the  steamer,  but  the 

steamer  never  arrived •  its  destination. 

54.  Let  us  communicate  • •  the  chairman  of  the  com- 

mittee;  and  have  him  communicate  our  desires 

the  other  members. 

55.  A  taste  •  one  good  author,  often  lays  the  foun- 

dation • •  a  taste good  literature. 

56.  A  man  ■ •  keen  foresight  has  the  advantage — — • 

an}^  one  who  tries  to  take  advantage ■  him. 

57.  A  lazy  farmer  is  always  disappointed  ■  his  crops, 

and  his  landlord  is  consequently  disappointed 

him. 

58.  They  intruded •  my  time. 

59.  He  is  expert  — — — — -  doing  some  things,  but  he  is  not 

expert •  foot-ball. 


116  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN   ENGLISH 

60.  It  is  difficult  to  distinguish  a  mushroom  a  toad- 

stool, but  they  may  generally  be  distinguished  

their  color. 

61.  Defend  me the  attacks  of  enemies  that  wear  the 

garb  of  friendship,  and  I  can  defend  myself • 

all  harm. 

62.  Agree •  an  adversary,   even  if  you   must   agree 

his  proposal. 

63.  He  will  not  argue  you,  but  I  have  heard  him 

argue  ■ the  measure  you  propose. 

64.  The  guilty  prisoner  is  impatient  • •  restraint,  while 

the  innocent  one  is  impatient  ■ — — •  his  trial. 

65.  I  am  familiar  ■ ■  the  poem,  but  that  line  is  not 

familiar me. 

66.  Air    consists   • •   oxygen    and   nitrogen;    breathing 

consists  separating  the  oxygen  from  a  quan- 
tity of  air. 

67.  They  placed  a  crown  his  head,  and  they  placed 

a  sparkling  jewel the  crown. 

68.  One  servant  attends •  his  master  constantly;  the 

other  stays  at  home,  and  attends  his  master 's 

affairs. 

69.  John  lives  ■ the    cross-roads,   and   William  lives 

the  village;  they  both  live  ■ ■  meagre 

incomes. 

70.  Provide    •    your    future    comforts   by    providing 

• •  yourself  all  the  necessaries  of  life. 

71.  I  will  accompany  you  to  call  — — a  friend,  if  you  will 

call me. 

72.  His  father  is  growing  anxious  him,  because  he 

has  lately  grown  so  anxious  — •  wealth  and  luxury. 

LESSON  30 
PREPOSITIONS— Continued 

We  should  not  omit  a  preposition  that  is  necessary  to 
make  the  meaning  of  a  sentence  clear;  nor  should  we  use  a 
preposition  that  is  not  needed. 

1.  A  preposition  should  be  used  with  a  noun  to  indicate 
the  time  of  an  occurrence. 


PREPOSITIONS  117 

Incorrect:  The  preceding  year,  he  went  to  France. 
Correct:  In  the  preceding  year,  he  went  to  France. 
2.  Before   ''home"  the   preposition   at   should   never    be 
omitted,  but  the  preposition  to  is  always  omitted. 
Incorrect:  He  is  home. 
Correct:  He  is  at  home. 
Incorrect:  I  am  going  to  home. 
Correct:  I  am  going  home. 

EXERCISE  30 

Insert  the  correct  prepositions  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  His  efforts  w^re  not  for  the  great,  but  the  lowly. 

2.  Egypt  is  on  the  west  side  of  the  Red  Sea. 

3.  He  was  banished  the  country. 

4.  He  is  unworthy  our  charity. 

5.  What  use  is  this  to  him? 

6.  He  is  worthy  our  help. 

7.  I  was  prevented  going. 

8.  He  received  letters  from  England  and  France. 

9.  He  is  not  home,  but  he  is  coming  to-night. 

10.  Religion  is  a  comfort  in  youth  as  well  as  old  age. 

11.  It's  no  use  to  do  that. 

12.  There  is  no  use  going  there. 

13.  He  was  born  the  20th  September,  1875. 

14.  Adam  and  Eve  were  expelled  the  garden. 

15.  Ignorance  is  the  mother  of  fear  as  well  as  admiration. 

16.  These  oranges  are  not  for  me,  but  you. 

17.  What  use  is  that  to  me? 

18.  I  am  going  to  the  store  and  post-office. 

19.  It  is  no  use  to  me. 

20.  They  were  prevented  coming. 

21.  Is  he  worthy  our  confidence? 

22.  I  was  home. 

23.  He  lives  the  other  side  of  the  river. 

24.  It's  no  use  to  give  up. 

25.  Wealth  is  more  conducive  to  worldliness  than  piety. 

Strike  out  the  unnecessary  prepositions  in  the  following 
sentences. 


118  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

1.  Keep  off  of  the  grass. 

2.  In  what  latitude  is  New  York  in? 

3.  He  started  a  week  ago  from  last  Saturday. 

4.  I  went  there  at  about  noon. 

6.  To  what  may  Italy  be  likened  to? 

6.  In  about  April,  the  farmer  plants  his  seed. 

7.  The  boy  is  like  to  his  father. 

8.  They  offered  to  him  a  chair. 

9.  Where  have  you  bee  a  to? 

10.  This  is  the  subject  of  which  I  intended  to  write  about. 

11.  He  went  to  home. 

12.  By  what  state  is  Kentucky  bounded  by? 

13.  Where  are  you  going  to? 

14.  Butter  brings  forty  cents  for  a  pound. 

15.  John's  favorite  sport  was  in  robbing  orchards. 

16.  He  lives  near  to  the  river. 

17.  The  man  fell  off  of  the  ladder. 

18.  At  about  what  time  did  he  go? 

19.  Look  out  of  the  window. 

20.  Turn  around  the  corner. 

21.  The  plan  was  approved  of  by  all  of  the  men. 

22.  I  have  a  brother  of  five  years  old. 

23.  Before  answering  of  you,  I  must  think. 

24.  He  admitted  of  the  fact. 

25.  You  can  tell  by  trjdng  of  it. 

26.  At  what  hotel  does  your  friend  stay  at? 

27.  Rob  pushed  me  off  of  the  doorstep. 

28.  I  went  out  for  to  have  a  walk. 

29.  Lend  to  me  your  knife  for  a  while. 

30.  I  bought  three  bushels  of  timothy  seed  off  of  Neighbor 

Clark. 

31.  What  for  book  is  that  you  are  reading? 

32.  Where  did  he  get  all  these  sentences  from? 

33.  He  worked  very  hard  for  to  accomplish  his  purpose. 

34.  To  what  store  do  you  go  to? 

35.  Three  times  five  equals  to  fifteen. 

36.  From  what  source  does  petroleum  come  from? 

37.  Had  you  ever  met  with  his  father  before? 

38.  Where  are  you  going  to? 

39.  John    and    James    were    given   thirty-eight   cents   for   to 

divide  equally  among  themselves. 

40.  One-half  of  thii'ty-eight  equals  to  nineteen. 


PREPOSITIONS  119 

ERRORS  IN  THE  USE  OF  PREPOSITIONS 

1.  Do  not  use  unnecessary  prepositions. 
Incorrect:  He  came  at  about  noon. 
Correct:  He  came  at  noon. 

2.  Do  not  omit  necessary  prepositions. 
Incorrect:  I  could  not  refrain  shedding  tears. 
Correct:  I  could  not  refrain  from  shedding  tears. 

3.  Do  not  use  "in"  for  "into. " 
Incorrect:  Put  money  in  your  pocket. 
Correct:  Put  money  into  your  pocket. 

DEFINITIONS 

A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  connect  a  noun  or  its  equiv- 
alent with  some  other  part  of  speech  in  the  sentence. 

A  simple  preposition  is  a  simple  word  used  as  a  preposition. 

A  compound  preposition  is  one  formed  by  combining  two 
or  more  words,  usually  an  adverb  and  a  simple  jDreposition. 

A  phrase  preposition  is  two  or  more  words  taken  together 
to  form  a  preposition. 

A  prepositional  phrase  is  a  group  of  related  words  consist- 
ing of  a  preposition  and  a  noun,  or  a  pronoun,  with  or  without 
modifiers,  and  having  the  use  of  an  adjective  or  an  adverb. 

An  adjective  phrase  is  a  i^repositional  phrase  used  to  mod- 
ify a  noun  or  a  pronoun. 

An  adverb  phrase  is  a  prepositional  phrase  used  to  modify 
a  verb. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  PREPOSITIONS 

fl.  Simple 
I.     As  to  form.     \  2.  Compound 
3.  Phrase 


120 


LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 


II.     As  to  kind  of 
relation  indicated. 


1.  Adverbial 


1.  Place  from  which 

2.  Place  in  which 

3.  Place  to  which 

4.  Origin,  source, 
separation 

5.  Means     or     instru- 
ment, agent 

6.  Cause 

7.  Manner,  time,  price, 
specification 

2.  Adjective  (i-Q"^"*y 

[  2.  Possession 


LESSON  31 
PREPOSITIONS— Continued 
AMONG,    BETWEEN 

If  reference  is  made  to  more  than  two  persons  or  things, 
or  groups  of  persons  or  things,  mnoyig  should  be  used;  if  reference 
is  made  to  two  only,  between  is  the  proper  word. 

AT,    IN 

When  a  place  is  thought  of  as  a  mere  point  or  landing 
place,  at  should  be  used  before  the  name  of  the  place.  When 
we  desire  to  express  the  idea  "within  the  bounds  of, "  in  should 
be  used. 

BESIDE,    BESIDES 

Beside  means  "by  the  side  of;"  besides  means  "in  addition 
to,"  "other  than." 

BY,    WITH 

To  introduce  the  doer  or  agent  of  an  act  by  is  now  generally 
used;  to  introduce  tlie  means  or  instrument  with  which  some- 
thing is  done  ivtth  is  commonly  used.   • 


PREPOSITIONS  121 

IN,    INTO 

In  denotes  the  presence  within  the  bounds  of;  into  is  used 
with  ver])S  of  motion  and  suggests  movement  to  the  inside  of. 

IN,    ON 

Before  names  of  streets,  in  suggests  something  of  the  sur- 
roundings; on  indicates  location  only. 

EXERCISE  31 

Write  the  number  of  each  sentence  and  the  correct  word. 

AMONG,    BETWEEN 

1.  There  is  a  bad  feeling the  two  bo3's. 

2.  Divide  the  candy the  three  cliildren. 

3.  - — ■ — ■  the  many  applicants,  good  will  existed. 

4.  I  have  no  preference  — — the  six  books. 

5.  The  honors  were  equally  divided  the  tliree  con- 

testants. 
C).  Peace  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  is 

very  desirable. 
7.  Divide  the  money  — the  crew. 

AT,    IN 

1.  When  did  he  arrive ■  New  York? 

2.  We  shall  visit  the  British  Museum  — — — ■ — •  London. 

3.  He  is  now  living Baltimore. 

4.  Shakespeare  was  born  ■ — —  Stratford-on-Avon. 

5.  Milton  was  educated  — — ■ — — -  Christ's  College. 

C).  We  are  staying  — — ■ — - — ■  the  hotel  Walton Phila- 
delphia. 

BESIDE,    BESIDES 

1.  An  oak  tree  stood  — - — — - — -  the  gateway-. 

2.  .   working    during    the    day,    he    attended    Night 

School. 

3.  The  boy  sat ■  his  father. 

4.  Have  you  nothing  to  give •  advice. 

5.  An  old-fashioned  clock  stood — ■ — ■  the  open  fireplace. 


122  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH* 

BY,    WITH 

1.  Lieutenant  Peary  was  accompanied — -  his  wife. 

2.  The  capture  of  New  Orleans  was  attended man}' 

difficulties. 
.3.  Alexander  Hamilton  was  killed  ■ a  pistol. 

4.  The  hunters  were  surrounded  — — - — ■ — -  savages. 

5.  The  Great  Charter  was  signed  ■ — — ■ — — -  King  John. 

().  The  door  was  fastened  • •  nails  — — the  car- 
penter. 

7.  I  was  initiated carelessness. 

8.  The  war  was  accompanied enormous  drafts  on  the 

Treasury. 

IN,    INTO 

1.  He  put  his  hand ■  my  pocket. 

2.  The  day  was  stormy,  and  I  walked my  room  for 

exercise. 

3.  He  stepped  — — ■ — — ■  the  water  and  waded  — •  it  for 

some  time. 

4.  Go •  the  house. 

5.  He  threw  the  paper •  the  fire. 

6.  Put  the  money ■  your  pocket. 

7.  It  began  to  rain  and  we  ran the  house. 

8.  He  put  a  book ■  my  hand. 

IN,    ON 

1. what  steamer  did  he  go? 

2.  The  children  were  playing  — — ■ — - —  the  street. 

3.  His  office  is ■  Chestnut  Street. 

4.  There  were  many  automobiles the  street. 

5.  He  lives Walnut  Street No.  4115. 

6.  Ex-president  Roosevelt  embarked the  Oceanic. 

LESSON  32 
CONJUNCTIONS 

The  compound  sentence,  ^'The}^  spoke,  and  we  listened," 
consists  of  two  independent  clauses.  These  clauses  are  con- 
nected by  the  word  ''and. "     ''And"  is  called  a  conjunction. 

A  word  that  is  used  to  connect  ivords  or  groups  of  words  is 
called  a  conjunction. 


CONJUNCTIONS  123 

In  the  sentence  just  given,  '^and"  not  only  connects  the 
(lauses,  but  also  shows  a  relation  of  agreement.  The  con- 
junction "and"  always  suggests  the  idea  of  the  addition  of  one 
tiiought  to  another. 

In  the  sentence  "Charles  was  large,  but  Orlando  was 
slender,"  the  conjunction  "but"  suggests  a  relation  of  oj)- 
jMsit'on  or  contrast. 

If  we  say,  "The  man  must  pay  the  fine  or  go  to  jail," 
the  conjunction  "or"  implies  that  of  the  two  possible  situations, 
one  of  which,  but  only  one,  can  be  realized. 

And,  but,  and  or,  are  called  coordinate  conjunctions. 

Words  that  join  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  of  equal  rank  ore 
called  coordinate  conjunctions. 

In  the  sentence,  "When  the  sun  rose,  the  flag  was  still 
tliere, "  "when"  introduces  the  dependent  clause,  "when  the 
sun  rose."     "When"  is  called  a  subordinate  conjunction. 

A  subordinate  conjunction  is  one  used  to  introduce  a  depend- 
ent clause. 

In  the  sentence,  "Either  you  must  leave,  or  I  shall  go," 
the  conjunction  "or"  is  intensified  by  "either."  Either — 
or  are  called  correlative  conjunctions. 

Coordinate  conjunctions  used  in  pairs  are  called  correlative 
conjunctions. 

The  correlatives  most  commonly  used  are:  either — or; 
neither — nor;  both — and;  at  once — and;  alike — and;  not  only — 
but  also;  as  Avell — as;  whether — or.  (Nor  is  the  correlative  of 
neither,  but  it  is  used  sometimes  with  other  negatives.) 

When  both — and,  either^ — or,  neither — nor,  and  not  only — 
but  also,  are  used,  the  part  of  the  sentence  that  follows  the 
first  term  of  the  correlatives  should  be  similar  in  construction 
to  the  part  following  the  second.  The  following  sentences  are 
correct : 

"I   will  meet  you  either  at  Baltimore  or  at  Philadelphia.^' 

"I  will  meet  you  at  either  Baltimore  or  Philadelphia.^^ 


124  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

'^I  will  either  meet  you  at  Baltimore  or  meet  you  at  Phila- 
delphia.^^ 

The  sentence,  ''I  will  either  meet  you  at  Baltimore  or  Phila- 
delphia" is  incorrect. 

EXERCISE  32 

Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  The  old  man  was  weak  both  in  body  and  mind. 

2.  John  either  is  stupid  or  lazy. 

3.  The  man  was  not  only  guilty  of  robbery  but  of  murder, 

4.  Adversity  both  teaches  to  think  and  to  be  patient. 

5.  Hamlet  was  either  insane,  or  he  feigned  insanity. 
G.  Either  the  fault  is  mine  or  yours. 

7.  I  have  had  both  experience  in  sickness  and  in  health. 

8.  They  are  either  to  meet  us  in  Paris  or  in  London. 

9.  Either  you  must  be  quiet  or  leave  the  room. 

10.  Flattery  both  corrupts  the  receiver  and  the  giver. 

11.  Neither  give  me  poverty  nor  riches. 

12.  Few  errors  were  made  either  by  the  boys  or  the  girls. 

13.  Such  rules  are  useless  both  for  teachers  and  pupils. 

14.  We  should  work  not  only  to  provide  for  the  future  but  also 

for  the  present. 

15.  We  are  neither  acquainted  with  Mr.  Smith  nor  with  his 

family. 

16.  He  not  only  gave  me  advice,  but  also  money. 

17.  She  not  only  dressed  richly  but  tastefully. 

18.  He  neither  was  rich  nor  poor. 

19.  His  failure  is  either  the  result  of  laziness  or  of  carelessness. 

20.  I  am  neither  an  ascetic  in  theory  nor  practice. 

21.  He  neither  yields  to  force  nor  to  persuasion. 

22.  Thales  was  not  only  famous  for  his  knowledge  of  nature, 

but  also  for  his  moral  wisdom. 

23.  He  likes  either  eggs  poached  or  fried. 

24.  He  neither  answered  my  letter  nor  my  card. 

25.  There  is  either  nothing  good  nor  bad  in  him. 


CONJUNCTIONS  125 

LESSON  33 
CONJUNCTIONS— Continued 
AND 
A7id  usually  suggests  the  meaning  ''In  addition  to." 

AS,    LIKE     , 

Like  should  not  be  used  as  a  conjunction;  therefore,  i*} 
should  not  be  used  instead  of  as  to  introduce  a  clause. 

BECAUSE,    SINCE 

Because  and  since  are  used  to  show  the  relation  of  cause 
and  effect.  Because  is  used  to  emphasize  the  cause;  since  to 
emphasize  the  effect  or  result.  For  may  be  used  to  show  re- 
lation of  cause  and  effect. 

BUT 

But  implies  a  relation  of  opposition  or  contrast. 

EXCEPT,  WITHOUT,  UNLESS 

Except  and  without  should  be  used  as  prepositions.  U?iless 
is  a  conjunction. 

OR 

Or  implies  that  of  two  possible  situations  only  one  can  be 
realized. 

WHEN,    WHILE 

When  means  ''at  the  time  that;"  while,  "during  the  time 
that." 

EXERCISE  33 

Write  the  number  of  each  sentence  and  the  correct  word. 
Do  not  confine  your  choice  to  the  words  given  in  Lesson  33. 

1.  Caesar  put  the  proffered  crowm  aside,  ■ he  would 

fain  have  had  it. 

2.  Take  awa}^  honor  and  imagination  and  poetry  from  war, 

■ it  becomes  carnage. 

3.  His  crime  has  been  discovered, he  must  flee. 

4.  You  must  eat,  • •  you  ^\nll  die. 


126  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

5.  Wisdom  is  the  principal  thing,  • ■  get  wisdom. 

6.  Let  but  the  commons  hear  this  testament,  • they 

would  go  and  kiss  dead  Caesar's  wounds. 

7.  Take  away  the  grandeur  of  his  cause,  ■ Washington 

is  a  rebel  instead  of  the  purest  of  patriots. 

8.  The  diamond  is  a  sparkling  gem,  ■ •  it  is  i^ure  carbon. 

9.  The  ostrich  is  a  bird, •  it  cannot  fly. 

10.  Not  a  sparrow  falls  ■ God  wills  it. 

11.  No  man  is  wicked he  loves  virtue. 

12.  He  is  liberal,  ■ he  is  not  generous. 

13.  They  are  poor, they  are  not  needy. 

14.  Both  he and  I  are  going. 

15.  The  book  is  not  perfect; it  is  very  helpful. 

16.  The  sea  is  rough, I  hear  the  surf. 

17.  We  cannot  go, should  you. 

18.  He  is  a  genius, he  does  not  seem  so. 

19.  I  admire  his  courage,  I  detest  his  cruelty. 

20.  Do  not  go the  sun  has  set. 

21.  Think  twice you  speak. 

22.  I   have  not  seen  my  friend  he  returned  from 

Dublin. 

23.  Caesar  loved  me,  I  weep  for  him. 

24.  spring  is  without  blossoms,  autumn  will  be  with- 
out fruit. 

25.  He  failed  in  business he  was  dishonest. 

26.  The  floods  came,  the  winds  blew.  it 

fell  not. 

27.  We  must  overcome  evil, it  will  overcome  us. 

28.  ■ we  are  nearest  the  sun  in  winter,  the  atmosphere 

at  that  season  is  coldest. 

29.  ■ I  knew  you  were  not  at  home,  I  did  not  call. 

30.  It  is  not  money, the  love  of  money,  which  is  the 

root  of  all  evil. 

31.  you  would  learn  the  value  of  money,  go  and  try 

to  borrow  some. 

ERRORS  IN  THE  USE  OF  CONJUNCTIONS 

1.  Or  is  the   correct   correlative  of  either  and  whether; 
nor  of  neither. 

2.  Than  and  not  huty  should  follow  eUe,  other,  and  likewise 
to  denote  comparison. 


CONJUNCTIONS  127 

Example. — Incorrect:  He  could  do  nothing  else  but  j^ay 
the  bill. 

Correct:  He  could  do  nothing  else  than  pay  the  bill. 

3.  Like  is  never  used  as  a  conjunction. 
Example. — Incorrect:  Do  like  I  do. 
Correct:  Do  as  I  do. 

4.  Except  and  without  are  prepositions  and  should  not  })e 
used  for  unless. 

Example. — Incorrect:  I  cannot  go  except  he  comes. 
Correct:  I  cannot  go  unless  he  come. 

5.  "But  what"  should  not  be  used  for  but  or  that. 
Example. — Incorrect:  I   cannot   believe   but   what   he   is 

living. 

Correct:  I   cannot  believe  but  (or  but  that)  he  is  living. 

6.  Do  not  use  conjunctions  in  place  of  other  parts  of  speech. 
Example. — Incorrect:  Try  and  do  good  work. 

Correct:  Try  to  do  good  work. 

7.  Do  not  use  and  or  but  to  join  an  adjective  clause  to  its 
principal  clause. 

Ex.\mple. — Incorrect:  He  received  a  good  salarj^,  but  which 
he  soon  spent. 

Correct:  He  received  a  good  salar}^,  which  he  soon  spent. 

8.  Than  and  as  are  not  prepositions;  they  are  conjunctions 
used  to  introduce  subordinate  clauses.  When  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun follows  than  or  as,  the  noun  or  pronoun  is  not  the  object 
of  a  preposition;  the  noun  or  pronoun  is  a  part  of  a  clause  the 
remainder  of  w^hich  is  omitted. 

Example. — I  am  taller  than  he  (than  he  is  tall). 
I  would  aid  you  more  willingly  than  her  (than  I  would 
aid  her). 

DEFINITIONS 

A  conjunction  is  a  word  or  words  used  to  join  clauses  or 
similar  parts  of  the  same  sentence. 

A  coordinate  conjunction  is  one  used  to  join  words,  phrases, 
or  clauses  of  equal  rank. 


II.  Subordinate.  < 


128  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

A  subordinate  conjunction  is  one  used  to  introduce  a  sub- 
ordinate clause. 

Correlative  conjunctions  are  coordinate  conjunctions  used 
in  i^airs. 

OUTLINE  CLASSIFICATIONS  OF  CONJUNCTIONS 

I.     Coordinate.     1.  Correlative. 

1.  Temporal 

2.  Place 

3.  Cause 

4.  Condition 

5.  Concession 

6.  Result 

7.  Manner 

LESSON  34 
INTERJECTIONS 

A  word  used  to  express  emotion  or  intense  feeling  is  called 
an  interjection . 

All  interjections  and  all  exclamatory  expressions  except 
the  exclamatory  sentence,  have  no  grammatical  relation  to 
the  rest  of  the  sentence;  that  is,  they  are  always  mdependent. 

The  following  parts  of  speech  may  be  used  as  interjections: 

1.  Nouns;  as,  Peace!     Be  still. 

2.  Pronouns;  as,  What!     You  laugh. 

3.  Adjective;  as,  Welcome! 

4.  Verbs;  as,  Behold!    The  hero  comes. 

5.  An  adverb;  as,  Away! 

6.  Phrases  and  other  expressions  also  may  be  used  as  in- 
terjections; as,  On  my  honor!     I  declare! 

PUNCTUATION 

Interjections  and  all  exclamatory  expressions  should  be 
followed  by  the  exclamation  mark  (!). 


INTERJECTIONS  129 

If  an  interjection  begins  an  expression  that  should  be  fol- 
lowed with  an  exclamation  mark,  a  comma  should  follow  the 
interjection;  as,  Oh,  how  it  rained! 

A  distinction  should  be  made  in  the  use  of  ''O"  and  ''Oh. " 
''O"  should  always  be  a  capital  letter,  and  the  exclamation 
mark  should  never  be  placed  immediately  after  it. 

EXERCISE  34 

Copy  and  punctuate  the  following  sentences. 

1.  o  taste  and  see  that  the  lord  is  good 

2.  knock  knock  knock  whos's  there 

3.  how  amiable  thou  art  o  virtue 

4.  o  virtue  how  amiable  thou  art 

5.  selling  off  below  cost 

6.  ah  there's  a  deathless  name 

7.  oh  how  it  hurts 

8.  rouse  ye  romans  rouse  ye  slaves 

9.  woe  unto  thee  bethsaida 

10.  oh  how  beautiful  is  the  sky 

11.  oh  see  the  beautiful  sky 

12.  w^here  did  you  find  your  ball 

13.  i  hear  in  the  chamber  above  me  the  patter  of  little  feet 

14.  charge  Chester  charge  on  Stanley  on 

15.  beneath  her  torn  hat  glowed  the  wealth  of  simple  beauty 

and  rustic  health 

16.  beneath  her  torn  hat  the  wealth  of  simple  beauty  and  rustic 

health  glowed 

MANY  WORDS  ARE  FREQUENTLY  USED  AS  DIFFERENT 
PARTS  OF  SPEECH 

The  following  words  illustrate  the  truth  that  the  part  of 
speech  of  a  w^ord  is  determined  by  its  use  in  a  sentence.  The 
student  should  find  not  only  profit  but  also  pleasure  in  adding 
other  words  to  this  list. 

Above.  (1)  Prep.:  The  stars  above  us.  (2)  Adj.:  The 
above  remarks  are  startling.  (3)  Adv. :  The  clouds  float  above. 
(4)  Noun:  Every  good  gift  is  from  above. 


130  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES   IN    ENGLISH 

About.  (1.)  Prep.:  The  belt  about  3^our  waist.  (2)  Adv.: 
About  five  were  injured. 

Adieu.  (1)  Interj.:  Adieu!  Adieu!  (2)  Noun:  He  l^ade 
us  adieu. 

After.  (1)  Prep:  After  seeing  us,  he  went  away.  (2)  Adv.: 
He  left  soon  after.     (3)  Conj.  adv.:  He  left  after  we  came. 

Alike.  (1)  Adj.:  They  are  ahke.  (2)  Adv.:  They  walk 
alike. 

All.  (1)  Pronoun :  All  went  away .  (2)  Noun:  The  money 
was  his  all.  (3)  Adj.:  All  this  advice  was  vain.  (4)  Adv.: 
Your  work  is  all  wrong.     (5)  Noun:  Our  little  all  is  lost. 

Alone.  (1)  Adv.:  The  child  played  alone.  (2)  Adj.:  He 
is  alone. 

As.  (1)  Adv.:  It  is  as  hard  as  rock.  (2)  Conj.  adv.: 
They  came  as  we  left.  (3)  Pel.  pronoun:  Such  as  I  have,  I  give 
thee.     (4)  Prep. :  I  consulted  him  as  a  lawyer. 

Both.  (1)  Adj.:  Both  boys  are  here.  (2)  Pronoim:  Both 
are  mine.     (3)  Adv. :  He  is  both  wise  and  virtuous. 

Any.  (1)  Adj.:  Any  one  may  go.  (2)  Pronoun:  Any 
of  us  can  do  that.     (3)  Adv.:  Is  the  man  any  better? 

Before.  (1)  Adv. :  He  went  before.  (2)  Prep. :  Go  before 
us.     (3)  Conj.  adv.:  He  left  before  we  came. 

Below.  (1)  Prep.:  The  gardens  below  us.  (2)  Adj.:  The 
gardens  below  are  beautiful.  (3)  Adv.:  We  went  below. 
(4)  Noun:  He  came  from  below. 

But.  (1)  Conj.:  He  is  poor,  but  he  is  honest.  (2) 
Prep. :  All  but  him  had  gone.  (3)  Adv. :  There  is  but  one  God. 
(4)  Rel.  pronoun:  ''There  is  no  fire-side,  howsoe'er  defended, 
but  has  one  vacant  chair."  (5)  Noun:  He  struck  the  butt  of 
the  tree. 

Best.  (1)  Adj.:  This  is  best.  (2)  Adv.:  What  can  you 
do  best? 

By.  (1)  Prep.:  We  went  by  the  brook.  (2)  Adv.:  They 
passed  by. 


INTERJECTIONS  131 

Either.  (1)  Adj.:  Give  it  to  either  boy.  (2)  Conj.: 
The  work  was  done  either  by  John  or  by  James.  (3)  Adj. 
pronoun:  Either  will  go  with  you. 

Else.  (1)  Adj.:  Nobody  else  can  do  it.  (2)  Adv.:  How 
else  can  we  go? 

Enough.  (1)  Noun:  I  have  enough.  (2)  Adj.:  Men 
enough  have  come.     (3)  Adv. :  He  is  old  enough. 

Far.  (1)  Adj.:  They  journeyed  into  a  far  country.  (2) 
Adv. :  They  went  far  away.  (3)  Noun :  They  came  from  far 
and  near. 

Fast.  (1)  Noun:  A  few  days  fast  is  sometimes  bene- 
ficial. (2)  Verb:  We  sometimes  fast.  (3)  Adv.:  The  horses 
ran  fast.     (4)  Adj . :  These  are  fast  colors. 

First.     (1)  Adv.:  Advise  me  first.     (2)  Adj.:  I  was  first. 

Full.  (1)  Adj.:  We  saw  the  full  moon.  (2)  Adv.:  "Full 
many  a  gem.  '^ 

Hard.  (1)  Adj.:  The  work  is  hard.  (2)  Adv.:  Hard  by 
yon  brook,  we  saw  him. 

High.  (1)  Adj.:  The  balloon  is  high.  (2)  Noun:  Our 
blessings  come  from  on  High. 

Like.  (1)  Noun:  We  shall  not  see  his  like  again.  (2) 
Adj. :  He  is  like  a  lion.     (3)  Adv. :  He  ran  Uke  a  deer. 

Much.  (1)  Adv.:  He  plays  much.  (2)  Noun:  They  made 
much  of  my  mistake.  (3)  Adj.:  "Much  learning  hath  made 
thee  mad. " 

Near.  (1)  Adj.:  Christmas  is  near.  (2)  Adv.:  Remain 
near.     (2)  Verb :  The  boat  nears  the  wharf. 

No.  (1)  Adj.:  No  person  was  injured.  (2)  Adv.:  We 
shall  see  thy  face  no  more. 

Only.  (1)  Adj.:  This  is  your  only  opportunity.  (2) 
Adv.:  He  only  pla3^s.  (3)  Conj.:  I  should  have  gone,  only 
it  rained. 

Since.     (1)  Adv.:  It  happened  ten  3'ears  since.     (2)  Prep.: 


132  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

Since  the  accident,  we  have  not  heard  from  him.     (3)    Conj. 
adv.:  Since  you  ask,  I  will  go. 

So.  (1)  Adv.:  They  were  so  tired.  (2)  Adj.:  Is  that  so? 
(3)  Noun:  He  gave  me  a  dollar  or  so. 

Still.  (1)  Adj.:  The  leaves  are  still.  (2)  Adv.:  The  trees 
is  still  standing.  (3)  Noun:  In  the  still  of  the  night,  the  rob- 
bers worked.     (4)  Conj.  adv.:  He  is  old,  still  he  is  strong. 

Than.  (1)  Conj.:  He  is  a  better  student  than  I.  (2) 
Prep.:  Than  whom,  none  higher  sat. 

That.  (1)  Rel.  pronoun:  It  was  he  that  did  it.  (2)  Adj.: 
That  man  did  the  work.     (3)  Adj.  pronoun:  That  is  desirable. 

The  (1)  Adj.:  The  day  is  rainy.  (2)  Adv.:  The  more, 
the  merrier. 

Then.     (1)  Adv.:  Then  we  shall  know.     (2)  Conj.   adv.: 
If  you  still  insist,  then  I  will  go. 

Which.  (1)  Interrog.  pronoun :  Which  is  the  better?  (2)  In- 
terrog.  adj.:  Which  book  do  you  like?  (3)  Rel.  pronoun:  The 
book  which  was  lost  is  found. 

Where.  (1)  Interrog  adv.:  Where  did  he  go?  (2)  Rel. 
adv. :  Walk  where  it  is  safe. 

While.  (1)  Noun:  Come  in  for  a  while.  (2)  Conj.  adv.: 
He  will  study  while  we  play.  (3)  Verb:  How  shall  we  while 
away  the  time? 

INFLECTIONS  OF  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH 

THE  NOUN 

We  have  learned  that  the  meanings  of  the  different  parts 
of  speech  may  be  changed  by  the  use  of  modifying  words, 
phrases,  and  clauses. 

We  shall  now  learn  that  a  change  in  the  forni  of  the  word 
itself,  without  the  use  of  modifiers,  may  indicate  certain  changes 
in  meaning. 

When  the  form  of  the  word  ''heir"  changes  to  ''heiress," 


INFLECTIONS    OF    NOUNS  133 

we  know  that  the  meaning  also  has  changed,  the  one  form  in- 
dicating a  male  and  the  other,  a  female  who  inherits  property 
after  the  death  of  the  owner. 

A  change  in  the  form  of  any  part  of  speech  to  indicate  a  change 
in  its  meaning  or  use  in  the  sentence  is  called  inflection. 

A  change  in  the  meaning  or  use  of  a  word  is  sometimes 
shown  by  the  use  of  a  different  word  instead  of  by  a  change  in 
the  form  of  the  word;  as  son,  daughter. 

In  English,  therefore,  inflection  has  a  somewhat  l:)roader 
application  than  the  definition,  just  given,  suggests. 

We  shall  now  study  the  inflection  of  the  noun. 

(Every  student  should  own  a  dictionary,  and  should  ac- 
quire the  *' dictionary  habit.''  When  in  doubt  concerning  the 
spelling,  pronunciation,  moaning,  or  inflection  of  any  word, 
he  should  consult  the  dictionary.) 

LESSON  35 

INFLECTION  OF  NOUNS 

NUMBER 

When  a  noun  represents  any  one  member  of  a  class,  it  is 
said  to  be  in  tiie  singidar  number;  w^hen  a  noun  represents  more 
than  one  member  of  its  class,  it  is  said  to  be  in  the  plural  numljer. 

THE  REGULAR  FORM  OF  THE  PLURAL 

The  plural  of  nouns  is  generally  formed  by  suffixing  '^s" 
to  the  singular  form ;  as  friend,  friends. 

IRREGULAR  FORMS  OF  THE  PLURAL 

Nouns  ending  in  an  '^s"  sound.  When  the  singular  form 
of  any  noun  ends  in  ''s"  or  a  similar  sound;  as,  ''ss,"  *'ch, " 
"sh, "  *'x, "  or  ''z,"  ''es"  is  suffixed  to  the  singular  form  of  the 
noun  and  is  pronounced  as  another  s^^llable;  as  churches, 
grasses,  boxes,  larches,  topazes. 


"     The 

following    nouns 

''v''  and  suffixing  '^s"  or 

Sing. 

Plural 

loaf 

loaves 

self 

selves 

sheaf 

sheaves 

shelf 

shelves 

thief 

thieves 

wife 

wives 

wolf 

wolves 

134  Lessons  and  exercises  in  English 

Nouns  ending  in    '^f"    or    '^fe. 
form  their  plurals  by  changing  '^f  to 
^'es:'' 
Sing.  Plural 

beef  beeves 

calf  calves 

elf  elves 

half  halves 

knife  knives 

leaf  leaves 

life  lives 

The  plural  of  wharf  may  be  either  wharfs  or  wharves. 
The  plural  of  staff,  meaning  a  body  of  officers,  is  staffs. 
In  most  of  its  other  meanings,  staff  has  the  plural  staves. 

Compounds  of  staff  suffix  ''s"  to  form  the  plural;  as 
flag-staffs. 

All  other  nouns  ending  in  an  ''f"  sound  form  their  plurals 
by  suffixing  *'s." 

EXERCISE  35 

Write  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  nouns:  Ax,  arch, 
adz,  box,  brush,  cage,  cow,  chaise,  cross,  cafe,  ditch,  dog,  engine, 
face,  gas,  glass,  hedge,  house,  imp,  lamb,  lash,  lens,  niche,  owl, 
prize,  quail,  race,  stag,  topaz,  uncle,  vote,  wedge,  belief,  brief, 
chief,  cliff,  dwarf,  fife,  grief,  giraffe,  gulf,  hoof,  kerchief,  proof, 
quaff,  reef,  roof,  safe,  scarf,  serf,  strife  and  turf. 

LESSON  36 
INFLECTION  OF  NOUNS— Continued 

Nouns  ending  in  ''y. ''  If  the  singular  form  of  the  noun 
ends  in  "y"  and  is  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change  the  "y" 
to  *'ie"  and  suffix  ''s"  to  form  the  plural;  as,  city,  cities. 

Words  like  soliloquy  form  their  plurals  in  this  way  (so- 
liloquy, soliloquies),  ''qu"  being  equivalent  to  a  consonant. 

If  the  singular  form  ends  in  '^y  "  and  is  preceded  by  a  vowel, 
suffix  *'s"  to  form  the  plural;  as,  day,  days. 


INFLECTIONS    OF    NOUNS 


135 


Nouns  ending  in  '^o."  All  nouns  ending  in  '^o'*  preceded 
by  a  vowel  and  some  nouns  ending  in  '^o"  preceded  by  a  con- 
sonant suffix  ''s"  only  to  form  their  plurals;  as  cameo,  cameos; 
])iano,  pianos. 

Some  nouns  ending  in  *'o"  preceded  by  a  consonant  suffix 
*'es"  to  form  their  plurals  without  increase  of  syllables;  as,  hero, 
heroes. 

Study  the  following: 

BY   SUFFIXING    ''s" 


banjos 

cantos 

chromos 

contraltos 

dominos 

dynamos 

grottos 

halos 

mementos 

virtuosos 

octavos 

pianos 

porticos 

provisos 

sopranos 

solos 

trios 

BY    SUFFIXING    '^Es" 

buffaloes 

cargoes 

desperadoes 

heroes 

innuendoes 

negroes 

potatoes 

tomatoes 

volcanoes 

calicoes 

echoes 

embargoes 

mosquitoes 

mottoes 

mulattoes 

tornadoes 

vetoes 

EXERCISE  36 

Write  the  plurals  of  the  following  nouns:  Alle}^,  alh',  attor- 
ney, body,  beauty,  boy,  city,  charity,  chimne}",  colloquy, 
countr}^,  candy,  company,  colony,  century,  daisy,  day,  ditty, 
donkey,  essa^^,  fairy,  fancy,  glor}^,  jockey,  journey,  jury,  lad\', 
lily,  mercy,  money,  monkey,  mystery,  majority,  penny,  pony, 
pulley,  penalt}',  sky,  soliloquy,  study,  s^Tnpathy,  story,  society, 
sherry,  turkey,  turnkey,  theory,  valley,  vanity. 

Albino,  baml:)oo,  bravo,  buffalo,  banjo,  calico,  canto, 
cargo,  cameo,  domino,  duodecimo,  echo,  embryo,  flamingo, 
fresco,  grotto,   halo,  hew,  innuendo,  junto,   lasso,  manifesto, 


136 


LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES   IN    ENGLISH 


momento,  mosquito,  motto,  mulatto,  negro,  no,  palmetto, 
piano,  portfolio,  portico,  potato,  proviso,  quarto,  salvo,  solo, 
stiletto,  tomato,  tornado,  two,  trio,  volcano,  zero. 


LESSON  37 
INFLECTION  OF  NOUNS— Continued 

Some  nouns  are  very  irregular;  their  plurals  are  formed 
by  an  internal  change. 


Examples  : 

Singular 

Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

child 

children 

mouse 

mice 

foot 

feet 

ox 

oxen 

goose 

geese 

tooth 

teeth 

louse 

Hce 

woman 

women 

man 


men 


NOUNS   HAVING   TWO    PLURALS    OF   DIFFERENT   MEANINGS 


Singular 
brick 

brother 

cannon 

cloth 

die 

fish 
foot 


Plural 
bricks  (individuals) 
brick  (a  collection) 
brothers  (by  birth) 
brethren  (by   association,    as  in  a  religious 

organization) 
cannons  (individuals) 
cannon  (a  collection) 
cloths  (of  different  kinds) 
clothes  (garments) 
dies  (for  stamping) 
dice  (for  playing) 
fishes  (individuals) 
fish  (a  collection) 
feet  (the  lower  parts  of  the  body) 
foot  (foot-soldiers) 


INFLECTIONS    OF   NOUNS 


137 


fowl 

genius 

head 

horse 

index 

penny 

pea 
sail 
shot 

summons 
staff  . 


r  fowls  (individuals) 

[fowl  (the  species) 

/geniuses  (persons  of  uncommon  talent) 

\  genii  (spirits) 

r  heads  (individuals) 

\  head  (a  number  of  cattle) 

/horses  (animals) 

\  horse  (soldiers) 

/  indexes  (in  books) 

I  indices  (in  algebra) 

pennies  (separate  coins) 

pence   (taken   collectively,    used    chiefly 
speaking  of  English  money) 
/peas  (individuals) 
\  pease  (collectively) 
/  sails  (pieces  of  canvas) 
/sail  (ships) 

/  shots  (a  number  of  discharges) 
/  shot  (number  of  balls) 
/  summons  (in  non-legal  sense) 
/  summonses  (in  legal  sense) 
/staffs  (military  sense) 
\  staves  (in  most  meanings) 


ui 


NOUNS   HAVING    THE   SAME   FORM   FOR   SINGULAR   AND 
PLURAL   NUMBER 

Some  nouns  have  the  same  form  in  both  numbers;  as, 
deer,  corps,  Chinese,  cod,  elk,  grass,  grouse,  heathen,  moose, 
series,  sheep,  salmon,  perch,  species,  shad,  sw4ne,  trout,  odds, 
vermin. 

When  used  with  numerals,  the  following  nouns  have  the 
same  form  in  both  numbers;  otherwise,  they  suffix  "s'^  to  form 
their  plurals:  brace,  couple,  dozen,  pair,  score,  hundred,  thou- 
sand, yoke. 


138  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES   IN    ENGLISH 

NOUNS   WITH   NO   PLURAL   FORMS 

Some  abstract  nouns,  and  the  names  of  many  materials, 
have  no  plural  forms;  such  as,  wisdom,  patience,  fortitude, 
luck,  righteousness,  purity,  temperance,  gold,  silver,  iron, 
steel,  mercur}^,  aluminum. 

NOUNS   WITH   THE   PLURAL   FORM   BUT   SINGULAR   MEANING 

Some  nouns  are  plural  in  form  but  singular  in  meaning; 
such  as,  acoustics,  amends,  athletics  (may  be  used  as  a  plural), 
bellows,  civics,  gymnastics  (may  be  used  as  a  plural),  dynamics, 
economics,  ethics,  hydraulics,  mathematics,  metaphysics,  mea- 
sles (disease),  molasses,  news,  optics,  phonetics,  physics,  politics 
(now  used  as  a  plural),  statics.  United  States. 

NOUNS   WITH  NO   SINGULAR   FORM 

Some  nouns  which  represent  two  or  more  objects  alwaj^s 
associated  have  no  singular  form;  such  as,  assets,  arms  (in  the 
military  meaning),  ashes,  annals,  archives,  bitters,  breeches, 
billiards,  cattle,  dregs,  draughts,  eaves,  (by  derivation  singular, 
by  present  use  plural) ,  entrails,  means  (income),  measles  (larvae), 
mumps,  nuptials,  oats,  overalls,  pincers,  proceeds,  premises 
(real  estate),  riches  (by  derivation  singular,  by  present  use 
plural),  greens,  scales,  scissors,  shears,  snuffers,  suds,  statistics 
(facts),  thanks,  tongs,  trappings,  trousers,  tweezers,  vitals, 
victuals. 

The  followiug  nouns  have  no  singular  corresponding  in 
meaning:  colors  (flag),  compasses  (dividers),  goods  (property), 
grounds  (dregs),  letters  (literature),  manners  (behavior), 
matins  (morning  service),  morals  (character),  remains  (dead 
body),  spectacles  (glasses),  vespers  (evening  service). 

EXERCISE  37 

Write  the  following  nouns  in  five  lists;  in  the  first  list, 
place   those  having  two  plurals  of  different  m(\anings;  in  the 


INFLECTIONS    OF    NOUNS 


139 


second^  those  having  the  same  form  for  singular  and  plural 
numbers;  in  the  tliird,  those  having  no  plural  forms;  in  the 
fourth,  those  having  the  plural  form  but  the  singular  meaning; 
in  tlie  fifth,  those  having  no  singular  form. 


brick 

elk 

sheep 

apparatus 

entrails 

metaphysics 

assets 

means 

scissors 

luck 

gold 

pea 

bellows 

gymnastic 

salmon 

arms 

fowl 

shears 

brother 

grass 

disease 

deer 

silver 

snuffers 

ashes 

measles 

sail 

wisdom 

dynamics 

suds 

cannon 

genius 

perch 

annuals 

mumps 

statics 

corps 

nuptials 

molasses 

patience 

grouse 

thanks 

archives 

iron 

shot 

acoustics 

economics 

tongs 

cloth 

head 

trappings 

bitters 

oats 

shad 

Chinese 

pincers 

summons 

righteousness 

overalls 

news 

amends 

heathen 

species 

breeches 

steel 

trousers 

die 

horse 

swine 

cod 

ethics 

optics 

cattle 

moose 

trout 

billiards 

proceeds 

tweezers 

purity 

riches 

phonetics 

athletics 

mercury 

physics 

fish 

hydraulics 

vitals 

dregs 

index 

odds 

eaves 

series 

politics 

duck 

premises 

vermin 

draughts 

greens 

tidings 

temperance 

aluminum 

United  States 

civics 

mathematics 

victuals 

foot 

penny 

140  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

LESSON  38 

INFLECTION  OF  NOUNS— Continued 

PLURALS   OF   COMPOUND   NOUNS 

Some  compoiind  nouns  form  their  plurals  by  pluralizing 
the  principal  word;  as,  attorneys-at-law,  brothers-in-law, sisters- 
in-law,  sons-in-law,  daughters-in-law,  fathers-in-law,  mothers- 
in-law,  attorneys-general,  postmasters-general,  commanders-in- 
chief,  generals-in-chief ,  aides-de-camp,  courts-martial,  hangers-on, 
knights-errant,  men-of-war. 

Most  compounds  form  their  plural  by  pluralizing  the  last 
word;  as,  pailfuls,  greenhouses,  handfuls,  court-yards,  major- 
generals,  four-in-hands,  three-per-cents,  forget-me-nots. 

A  few  compounds  pluralize  both  words;  as,  man-child, 
men-children;  man-singer,  men-singers. 

The  following  nouns  are  not  considered  compounds  of 
man  and  they  form  their  plurals  by  suffixing  ''s;"  Brahman, 
German,  Mussulman,  Norman,  Ottoman,  talisman. 

PROPER   NOUNS 

Proper  nomis  generally  follow  the  same  rule  as  common 
nouns;  as,  Beechers,  Johnstons,  Adamses. 

When  compounds  are  made  up  of  a  surname  and  a  title, 
either  the  surname  or  the  title  may  be  pluralized;  as,  the  Mr. 
Clarks  or  the  Messrs.  Clark. 

The  title,  however,  is  usually  pluralized. 

The  plural  of  Mr.  is  Messrs. ;  of  Miss,  Misses. 

The  title  Mrs.  has  no  plural  form. 

A  title  should  be  plural  when  used  with  several  names; 
as,  the  Misses  Brown,  Smith,  and  Jones;  Messrs.  Wanamaker 
and  Brown. 

EXERCISE  38 

Write  the  plurals  of  the  following  nouns  in  four  lists;  in 
the  first,  place  those  that  plurahze  the  principal  word;  in  the 


INFLECTIONS    OF    NOUNS 


141 


second,  those  that  plunihze  the  last  word;  in  the  third,  these 
that  are  not  considered  compounds  of  man;  in  the  fourth, 
those  that  pluralize  both  words. 

Handkerchief,  aid-de-camp,  Englishman,  attorney-at-law, 
workman,  goose-quill,  boot-jack,  talisman,  Brahman,  adjutant- 
general,  brother-in-law,  son-m-law,  captain,  castle-clock,  French- 
man, cayman,  lord-justice,  chess-man,  sister-in-law,  coach- 
ful,  woman-clerk,  Dutchman,  coming-in,  brigadier-general, 
commander-in-chief,  churchman,  court-martial,  countryman, 
cousin-German,  knight-templar,  cupful,  lord-lieutenant,  des- 
man, lieutenant-colonel,  doctor,  doorwa}',  fireman,  foeman, 
five-year-old,  general,  German,  going-out,  going-forth,  hanger- 
on,  knight-errant,  leger-de-main,  lieutenant,  main-spring, 
major,  man-child,  man-of-war,  man-servant,  man-singer, 
mouse-trap,  Mussulman,  Norman,  Ottoman,  ox-cart,  pocket- 
book,  postmaster-general,  forget-me-not,  good-for-nothing, 
handful,  spoonful,  father-in-law,  court-yard,  maid-servant, 
tooth-brush. 

LESSON  39 

INFLECTION  OF  NOUNS— Continued 

FOREIGN    NOUNS 

There  are  some  nouns  in  the  English  language  derived 
from  foreign  languages.  Some  still  retain  their  foreign  plurals; 
others  have  two  plurals,  one  foreign,  the  other  English. 

FOREIGN    NOUNS   WITH    FOREIGN    PLURALS 


Singular 

Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

alumna 

alumnae 

basis 

bases 

alumnus 

alumni 

crisis 

crises 

analysis 

analyses 

criterion 

criteria 

antithesis 

antitheses 

datum 

data 

axis 

axes 

desideratum 

desiderata 

arena 

arenae 

ellipsis 

ellipses 

amanuensis 

amanuenses 

erratum 

errata  - 

bacterium 

bacteria 

fibula 

fibulae 

142 


LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 


Singular 

Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

hypothesis 

hypotheses 

parenthesis 

parentheses 

matrix 

matrices 

radius 

radii 

metamorphosis 

metamorphoses 

synopsis 

synopses 

nebula 

nebulae 

stimulus 

stimuli 

nucleus 

nuclei 

thesis 

theses 

oasis 

oases 

terminus 

termini 

phenomenon 

phenomena 

vertebra 

vertebrae 

FOREIGN   NOUNS    WITH    BOTH    FOREIGN   AND    ENGLISH 

PLURALS 


Singular 

Foreign  form 

English  form 

apex 

apices 

apexes 

appendix 

appendices 

appendixes 

automaton 

automata 

automatons 

beau 

beaux 

beaus 

bureau 

bureaux 

bureaus 

bandit 

banditti 

bandits 

cherub 

cherubim 

cherubs 

curriculum 

curricula 

curriculums 

dogma 

dogmata 

dogmas 

dilettante 

dilettanti 

dilettantes 

formula 

formulae 

formulas 

focus 

foci 

focuses 

fungus 

fungi 

funguses 

genus 

genera 

genuses  (rare) 

index 

indices 

indexes 

libretto 

libretti 

librettos 

larva 

larvae 

larvas 

madam 

mesdames 

madams 

mademoiselle 

mesdemoiselles 

mademoiselles 

monsieur 

messieurs 

messrs. 

medium 

media 

mediums 

memorandinn 

memoranda 

memorandums 

INFLECTIONS    OF    NOUNS 


143 


Singular 
l)ortmanteau 
rostrum 
seraph 
stamen 
stratum 
tableau 
virtuoso 
vortex 
gymnasium 

If  letters,  figures, 
they  are  pluralized  by 
as,  t's,  3's,  +  's. 


Foreign  form 
portmanteaux 
rostra 
seraphim 
stamina 
strata 
tableaux 
virtuosi 
vortices 
gymnasia 


English  form 
portmanteaus 
rostrums 
seraphs 
stamens 
stratum  s 
tableaus 
virtuosos 
vortexes 
gymnasiums 


and  other  characters  are  used  as  nouns, 
suffixing  the  apostrophe  and  "s"   ('s); 


EXERCISE  39 


The  teacher  should  assign  a  certain  number  of  nouns,  in 
lesson  39,  to  be  spelled  correctly  and  defined. 


LESSON  40 

INFLECTION  OF  NOUNS— Continued 
GENDER   IN   NOUNS 

Nouns  are  inflected  to  denote  the  sex  of  the  person  or  thing 
represented. 

A  noun  which  represents  a  person  or  an  animal  of  the  male 
sex  is  said  to  be  of  the  masculine  gender.  A  noun  which  rep- 
resents a  person  or  an  animal  of  the  female  sex  is  said  to  be  of  the 
feminine  gender. 

Gender  is  distinguished  in  three  ways: 

1.  By  the  use  of  different  terminations;  as,  baron,  baroness; 
host,  hostess;  lion,  lioness;  priest,  priestess;  prince,  princess. 

''Ess"  is  the  termination  mostly  used.  The  mascuhne 
termination  is  sometimes  dropped  before  ''ess"  is  suffixed; 
as,  abbot,  abbess;  duke,  duchess;  marquis,  marchioness. 


144  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

The  vowel  of  the  mascuHne  termination  is  often  dropped 
and  '^ess"  is  then  suffixed;  as,  actor,  actress;  emperor,  empress; 
governor,  governess;  master,  mistress;  tiger,  tigress;  negro, 
negress. 

A  few  words  derived  from  the  Latin  have  the  feminine 
ending  in  trix;  as,  testator,  testatrix;  administrator,  admin- 
istratrix; executor,  executrix. 

A  few  foreign  words  have  the  feminine  ending  in  "a;" 
as,  infante,  infanta;  sultan,  sultana;  Augustus,  Augusta;  Louis, 
Louisa. 

^'Ine"  or  '4na"  is  the  feminine  termination  for  a  few 
nouns;  as,  hero,  heroine;  czar,  czarina;  Joseph,  Josephine; 
Paul,  Paulina. 

2.  By  the  use  of  different  words;  as,  bachelor,  maid;  earl, 
countess;  king,  queen;  lord,  lady;  monk  or  friar,  nun;  sir,  madam; 
stag,  hind;  wizard,  witch;  youth,  maiden;  beau,  belle. 

3.  By  words  prefixed  or  suffixed  to  nouns;  man-servant, 
maid-servant. 

Some  nouns  have  the  same  form  for  both  sexes,  and  are 
said  to  be  of  the  comiuon  gender;  as,  poet,  editor,  doctor,  author, 
cousin,  friend,  child,  parent. 

There  are  classes  of  things  that  have  7io  sex;  therefore, 
the  nouns  wiiich  represent  them  are  said  to  be  of  the  neuter 
gender;  as,  table,  hat,  book. 

EXERCISE  40 

Write  the  feminine  of  each  of  the  following  words : 

actor  baron  canon 

adjustor  beau  caterer 

administrator  benefactor  chanter 

adulterer  billy-goat  Charles 

arbiter  boy  coadjutor 

auditor  bridegroom  cock-sparrow 

Augustus  brother  colt 

author  buck  conductor 

ambassador  buck-rabbit  count 

bachelor  bullock  czar 


INFLECTIONS    OF    NOUNS 


1-15 


dauphin 

hunter 

preceptor 

deacon 

husband 

peer 

don 

idolater 

poet 

drake 

infante 

porter 

drone 

instructor 

priest 

duke 

inventor 

prince 

earl 

Jesse 

prior 

editor 

Jew 

prophet 

elector 

John 

protector 

emperor 

Joseph 

peacock 

enchanter 

Julius 

ram 

Englishman 

lad 

signore  (signoij 

equestrian 

landgrave 

sir 

executor 

landlord 

sire 

father 

lion 

shepherd 

Francis 

lord 

son 

friar 

Louis 

songster 

gander 

Lucius 

sorcerer 

gentleman 

man 

sultan 

George 

man-servant 

stag 

giant 

marquis 

swain 

god 

mayor 

steer 

governor 

master 

tailor 

grandfather 

merman 

testator 

hart 

milter 

tiger 

he-bear 

monitor 

traitor 

heir 

Mr. 

tutor 

Henry 

Mr.  Jones 

victor 

heritor 

negro 

viscount 

hero 

nephew 

widower 

horse 

ogre 

wizard 

host 

papa 
patron 

LESSON  41 

youth 

INFLECTION  OF  NOUNS- 

-Continued 

POSSESSIVE    FORMS 


Nouns  are  inflected  to  indicate  possession.     Nouns  haA^e 
two  forms,  the  common  form,  for  all  uses  of  the  noun  in  the  sen- 


146  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES   IN   ENGLISH 

tence  but  one;  and  the  possessive  form,  used  to  show  ownership 
or  possession. 

To  make  the  possessive  form  of  the  singular  number, 
suffix  to  the  common  form  of  the  noun,  an  apostrophe  and 
^'s"  ('s);  as,  boy,  boy's. 

If  the  singular  number  ends  in  "s, "  or  any  hissing  sound, 
the  (^s)  is  pronounced  as  ''es";  as,  fox,  fox's  (pronounced  foxes) ; 
grass,  grass's  (pronounced  grasses);  church,  church's  (pro- 
nounced churches). 

Good  usage  seems  to  favor  the  ''s"  in  such  proper  names 
as  James's,  Evans's,  King  Charles's. 

To  make  the  possessive  form  of  the  plural  number,  when 
the  plural  number  does  not  end  in  "s, "  suffix  an  apostrophe 
and  *'s"  ('s);  as,  men,  men's;  oxen,  oxen's. 

To  plural  nouns,  ending  in  ''s",  suffix  an  apostrophe  only, 
and  pronounce  like  the  plural  form;  as  friends',  days'." 

(In  the  phrases,  for  Jesus'  sake,  for  conscience'  sake,  for 
goodness'  sake,  for  righteousness'  sake,  the  "s"  is  omitted 
both  in  spelling  and  in  pronouncing.) 

In  forming  the  possessive  of  compound  nouns,  the  posses- 
sive sign  is  always  placed  at  the  end;  as,  brc  ther-in-law 's, 
brothers-in-law 's. 

If  two  or  more  nouns  are  taken  together  to  indicate  joint 
ownership,  the  possessive  sign  is  suffixed  to  thelast  of  these  nouns 
only;  as,  *' Sadler  and  Rowe's  Bookkeeping." 

If  each  of  the  nouns  denoting  joint  o^^^lership  is  preceded 
by  an  adjective,  or  if  they  are  placed  in  contrast,  the  posses- 
sive sign  is  suffixed  to  each  noun;  as,  *'It  was  the  motorman's 
and  not  the  conductor 's  duty; "  "  He  is  the  poor  man 's,  as  well 
as  the  rich  man 's,  friend. " 

If  two  or  more  nouns  are  taken  together  to  indicate  sep- 
arate ownership,  the  possessive  sign  should  be  suffixed  to  each; 
as,  *' Anderson's  and  Hull's  Arithmetic."  (Anderson's  mod- 
ifies Arithmetic  understood;  if  we  say,  Anderson's  and  Hull's 
Arithmetics,  both  nouns  modify  Arithmetics.) 


INFLECTIONS    OF    NOUNS  147 

A  noun  in  the  possessive  case  is  usually  equivalent  to  an 
adjective  phrase,  formed  of  the  preposition  '^of  "  and  the  com- 
mon form  of  the  noun.  In  the  expression,  the  store  of  Mr. 
Brown,  "of  IMr.  Bro^vn"  is  equivalent  to  Mr.  Brown's  store. 
(A  noun  in  the  possessive  case,  however,  is  not  always  equivalent 
to  an  adjective  phrase.  *'The  principal's  reception"  means 
the  reception  given  by  the  principal;  ''the  reception  of  the  prin- 
cipal" means  the  reception  given  to  the  principal.) 

The  noun  which  governs  the  possessive  case  is  sometimes 
omitted;  as,  "I  bought  this  pencil  at  the  bookseller's,"  meaning 
''at  the  bookseller's  store." 

Sometimes,  instead  of  suffixing  the  possessive  sign  to  a 
group  of  words,  it  is  better  to  indicate  the  possessive  by  using 
the  adjective  phrase;  as,  the  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court's  case,  the  case  of  the  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court. 
If  an  appositive  is  used,  the  appositive  usually  is  given  the  pos- 
sessive sign;  as,  ''This  is  Mr.  Smith,  the  teacher's,  book;" 
"This  is  Mr.  Smith,  our  teacher  and  friend's  book."  If  the 
appositive  has  a  long  modifier,  the  principal  noun  should  have 
the  possessive  sign,  and  the  name  of  the  thing  possessed  should 
follow  it;  as,  "This  is  Mr.  Smith's  book,  the  teacher  in  our 
school." 

A  noun  in  the  possessive  case  does  not  always  indicate 
possession.     It  may  express: 

1.  Origin  or  source;  as,  Dr.  Rowe's  Bookkeeping  and 
Accountancy. 

2.  Kind  or  fitness  of  a  thing;  as,  a  woman's  voice,  men's 
shoes. 

3.  Periods  of  time  in  certain  uses;  as,  a  year's  interest, 
five  days '  work. 

4.  Personification;  as.  Fortune's  smile.  (Personification 
is  a  form  of  expression  in  which  life  is  attributed  to  inanimate 
objects  or  the  characteristics  of  persons  are  attributed  to  ob- 
jects, animals  or  abstract  ideas.) 


148 


LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 


Good  usage  seems  to  favor  the  phrase  rather  than  the 
possessive  sign  in  comiection  with  inanimate  objects;  as,  the 
monuments  of  Baltimore  rather  than  Baltimore's  monuments. 


EXERCISE  41 

Write  the  possessive 

singular  and  the  possessive  pli 

each  of  the  following  nouns : 

actor 

chief                               tyro 

negro 

child                               ally 

volcano 

goose                              cuckoo 

elephant 

beau                               attorney 

king 

genius                            elf 

monkey 

horse                              fairy 

calf 

buffalo                           thief 

woman 

wolf                                wife 

seraph 

lion                                 deer 

swine 

princess                         sheep 

farmer 

hero                                fish 

dwarf 

junto                              ox 

waif 

mosquito                       mouse 

Use  in  a  sentence 

each   of  the  following  expressi 

denote  possession : 

father-in-law 

princess 

Wilham  the  Conqueror              book 

King  of  Great  Britain                chair 

Henry  the  Eighth 

Jefferson 

attorney-at-law 

somebody  else 

to 


1.  Change  the  following  expressions  so  that  they  will  show 
joint  possession: 

Gilbert's  and  Sullivan's  operas 
Hay's  and  Nicolay's  "Life  of  Lincoln" 
Beaumont's  and  Fletcher's  dramas 
Spain's  and  Portugal's  alliance 
Grant's  and  Sherman's  friendship 
Warner's  and  Twain's  ''Gilded  Age" 
Woodward's  and  Brown's  pianos 

2.  Change  the  follo^ving  expressions  so  that  they  will  show 
separate  ownership: 


INFLECTION  OF   PRONOUNS  14*.) 

Green  and  Macaulej-'s  '^HiGtory  of  England" 

Webster  and  Worcester's  dictionaries 

Do  you  prefer  Greenleaf  or  Wentworth's  arithmetics? 

Webster  and  Worcester's  ''Unabridged  Dictionary" 

Bancroft,  Prescott,  and  INIotley's  History 

Steinway  and  Chickering's  pianos 

Lowell  and  Holmes's  poems 

LESSON  42 

INFLECTION  OF  PRONOUNS 

NUMBER 

Personal  Pronouns:  Personal  pronouns,  like  nouns, 
have  a  singular  and  a  plural  form.  ^'1"  is  singular;  ''we"  is 
plural.  In  common  usage,  "you"  is  both  singular  and  plural. 
"He,"  "she,"  and  "it,"  are  singular;  "they"  is  plural. 

When  the  personal  pronouns  are  compounded  with  "self," 
l)oth  parts  of  the  compound  change  their  form  in  tlie  plural. 

Singular  Plural 

myself  ourselves 

thyself  yourselves 

himself 

herself  themselves 

itself 

Relative     and     Interrogative     Pronouns:     "Who," 

"which,"  "what,"  and  "that,"  used  as  relative  pronouns, 
have  the  same  forms  for  both  numbers.  "Who,"  "which," 
and  "what,"  used  as  interrogative  pronouns,  have  the  same 
forms  for  both  numbers. 

The  Demonstrative  Pronouns:  "This,"  and  "that," 
have  the  plurals  "  these"  and  "those"  respectively. 

Only  two  indefinite  pronouns  have  plural  forms;  one, 
ones;  other,  others. 


150  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES   IN   ENGLISH 

GENDER 

Personal  Pronouns:  The  personal  pronouns  have  an 
inflection  to  indicate  gender.  ''He"  represents  a  male,  and  is 
of  the  7nasculi7ie  gender;  ''she"  represents  a  female,  and  is  of  the 
f 67711711726  gcndcr;  ''it"  represents  that  which  has  no  sex  and  is 
said  to  be  of  the  neuter  gender.  "I,"  ''we,"  "you,"  and 
"they"  are  applied  to  persons  of  either  sex  and  are  said  to  be 
of  the  conwion  gender. 

Relative  and  Interrogative  Pronouns:  "Who"  used 
as  a  relative  pronoun  and  as  an  interrogative  pronoun  is  of 
the  common  gender.  The  relative  pronoun  "that"  is  of  either 
common  or  neuter  gender.  The  relative  pronouns,  "which" 
and  "Avhat, "  and  the  interrogative  pronouns,  "which"  and 
"what,"  are  of  the  neuter  gender. 

The  demonstrative  pronouns  and  the  indefinite  pronouns 
have  no  inflection  to  show  gender. 

ANTECEDENT 

A  noun,  or  an  equivalent  expression,  used  to  either  name  or 
designate  the  person  or  thing  to  whom  or  to  which  the  pronoun 
refers  is  called  the  a7itececlent  of  the  pronoun.  Some  Grammarians 
restrict  the  application  of  antecedent  to  the  word  represented 
by  a  relative  pronoun.  The  antecedent  of  a  relative  pronoun 
usually  immediately  precedes  the  pronoun. 

"Who"  is  generally  used  with  reference  to  persons. 
"Which"  is  apphed  to  living  creatures,  that  are  7iot  persons, 
and  to  things.  "That"  may  be  used  instead  of  either  "who" 
or  "which,"  referring  to  either  persons  or  things.  Euphony 
decides  between  "who"  or  "which"  and  "that." 

When  the  antecedent  includes  both  persons  and  things,  the 
relative  pronoun  "that"  should  be  used;  as,  The  soldiers  and 
cannon  that  you  saw  were  captured  in  the  battle. 

"What"  does  not  have  an  antecedent  expressed  in  the  sen- 
tence, but  it  contains  within  itself  both  antecedent  and  relative 


INFLECTION   OF  PRONOUNS  151 

being  equivalent  to  'Hhat  which"  (that,  demonstrative;  and 
which,  relative). 

The  proper  relative  after  ''such"  is  as;  after  "same" 
either  as  or  that  may  be  used. 

''Same  as"  usually  expresses  identity  of  kind;  "same 
that"  absolute  identity. 

EXERCISE  42 

Use  the  correct  relative  pronoun  in  each  of  the  following 
sentences,  and  name  the  antecedent. 

1.  Time  • ■  is  lost  is  never  found  again. 

2.  There  are  many saw  the  accident. 

3.  The  horse  ■ •  I  bought  ran  away. 

4.  We  saw  the  cannon  and  soldiers — ■  were  captured. 

5.  The  man •  is  reading  the  book  is  my  brother. 

6.  Tennyson,  ■ — •  was  the  foremost  poet  of  England. 

died  in  1892. 

7.  Was  it  he did  the  work? 

8.  This  is  the  book I  w^ant. 

9.  She  is  the  same  lady — ■  sang  yesterday. 

10.  Fools came  to  scoff  remained  to  pray. 

11.  Life  is  a  bubble ■  any  breath  may  dissolve. 

12.  The  man •  loves  and  laughs  must  surely  do  well. 

13.  He sleeps  feels  not  the  toothache. 

14.  In  life  there  are  meetings seem  like  fate. 

15.  Our  chief  want  in  life  is  somebody  ■ ■ — — ■  shall  make  us 

do  what  we  can. 

16.  All  men have  sense  and  feeling  are  being  helped. 

17.  Goodness  is  the  only  investment never  fails. 

18.  He  only  is  exempt  from  failure ■  makes  an  effort. 

19.  I  know happened  to  the  king's  arm3^ 

20.  The  man hesitates  is  lost. 

21.  Abraham  Lincoln  is  the  greatest  character  the 

nineteenth  century  produced. 

22.  We  sent  it  by  the  boy carries  papers. 

23.  They live  in  glass  houses  must  not  throw  stones. 

24.  The  horse refused  to  go  knew  mpre  than  he. 

25.  Man  is  the  only  animal  ■ can  blush. 


152  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

26.  Newspapers  — — ■ allow  partisan  politics  to  color  the 

news  — they  print,  exercise  a  dangerous  influence. 

27.  Do  not  spend  all  - — — you  earn. 

28.  The  dogs  and  men  — — ■ — ■ — •  were  here  were  put  out  of  the 

room. 

29.  Ben  Hur  is  one  of  the  books  — ■ — •  Lew  Wallace  Avrote. 

.30.  He  likes  his  dog,  • •  is  a  spaniel. 

31.  Socrates  was  one  of  the  greatest  philosophers 

Greece  produced. 

32.  Nero's  was  a  reign  ■ shocks  us  with  its  horrors. 

o3.  We  acquire  the  strength •  w^e  overcome. 

34.  Life  is we  make  it. 

35.  He  ■ •  fights  and  runs  away  maj^  live  to  fight  another 

day. 

36.  The  day  had  ])een  appointed  for  the  race  was 

stormy. 

37.  Many  animals  live  in   the   Arctic   region   have 

white  fur. 

38.  They   found    arrow-heads   were    made    b}-    the 

Indians. 

39.  ■ is  right  must  be  done. 

40.  You  see  — — — —  comes  of  disobedience. 
4L  I  love  such •  love  me. 

42.  Give  such  things  — — you  can  spare. 

43.  He  is  not  the  same  boy  • ■  he  was. 

44.  This  is  the  same  man  - — — — — ■  I  saw  yesterday. 

45.  He  held  the  same  religious  opinions  — — ■ — — •  his  friend. 


LESSON  43 
INFLECTION  OF  PRONOUNS— Continued 

CASE 

The  personal  pronouns  and  the  pronoun  'Svho"  (whelbf/ 
relative  or  interrogative)  liave  inflection  to  denote  different 
uses  in  the  sentences. 

The  inflection  of  the  ])ronouns  to  show  tlieir  uses  in  the  sen- 
tence is  called  ca.se. 


INFLECTION   OF  PRONOUNS  153 

A  pronoun  is  said  to  be  in  the  nominative  case  when  it  is 
used  as  the  subject  of  a  sentence  or  as  the  subject  of  a  chiuse; 
as,  -'He  did  tlie  work,'^  ''The  boy  who  was  here  is  my  brother." 

A  pronoun  is  said  to  be  in  the  objective  case  when  it  is  used 
as  the  direct  or  as  the  indirect  object  of  a  verb,  or  when  it  is 
used  as  the  principal  word  in  a  prepositional  phrase;  as,  ''I 
saw  him;^'  ''He  gave  her  a  book;"  ''Give  the  pencil  to  ???e. " 

(Other  illustrations  of  the  nominative  and  the  ol)jective 
case  will  be  given  later.) 

A  pronoun  is  said  to  be  in  the  possessive  case  when  it  in- 
dicates possession;  as,  ''The  boy  lost  his  hat." 

We  may  now  say  that  the  personal  pronouns  and  the 
pronoun  "who"  have  three  cases;  the  nominative,  possessive, 
and  objective. 

The  apostrophe  is  not  used  in  forming  the  possessive  of 
the  personal  pronouns. 

ExAMFLE.^ — ^The  wind  has  lost  its  (not  it 's)  force. 

The  adjective  *'o^\'n"  sometimes  follows  the  possessive 
for  emphasis;  as,  "This  is  my  own  hat." 

In  the  singular  and  in  the  plural,  the  personal  pronouns 
have  two  forms  for  the  possessive  case.  One  form  is  used  when 
the  name  of  the  thing  possessed  follows  immediately  the  pro- 
noun; the  other  form  is  used  when  the  name  of  the  thing  pos- 
sessed is  not  given,  or  when  the  name  of  the  thing  possessed 
does  not  follow  the  pronoun;  as,  "My  book  is  lost;"  "Mine  is 
lost ; "  "  The  book  is  inine. " 

In  the  sentence,  "  This  is  a  book  of  mine, "  we  have  a  double 
possessive.  This  type  of  double  possessive  is  a  well  established 
idiom.  (An  idiom  is  an  expression  that  violates  a  rule  of  the 
language  in  which  it  is  used;  but  the  e?q3ression  is  considered 
correct  because  of  long  and  respectable  usage.) 

The  expression,  "A  picture  of  the  queen's,"'  implies  that 
this  is  one  of  a  number  of  pictures  that  belong  to  the  queen, 
"A  picture  of  the  queen"  means  a  portrait  of  her. 


154  LESSONS   AND.  EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

RELATIVE   AND    INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUNS 

As  we  have  noted,  "who'*  used  as  a  relative  pronoun, 
and  as  an  interrogative  pronoun,  has  inflection  to  indicate 
case;  as,  '^  I  know  the  man  who  was  here; "  *'  I  do  not  know  whose 
book  this  is;''  ''I  know  whom  I  serve;"  ^'Who  is  that  man?" 
"  Whose  book  is  this?  "     *'  Whom  did  you  see?  " 

If  the  relative  pronoun  *'who"  is  compounded  with  ever 
or  soeveVf  the  pronoun  changes  its  form  as  it  would  if  it  were 
not  compounded;  as,  "Whosoever  will,  may  come;"  ''Tell  whom- 
ever you  see. " 

The  relative  pronouns,  "that,"  "which,"  and  ''what" 
and  the  interrogative  pronouns,  "which"  and  "that,"  have 
no  inflection. 

"Whose"  is  sometimes  used  as  a  possessive  of ''which" 
but  the  best  authorities  favor  "  of  which; "  as,  "A  book  the  back 
of  which  was  torn; "  rather  than,  "A  book  whose  back  was  torn. " 

The  possessive  of  one  is  one's;  as,  "One  should  do  one 's 
duty."  "Other"  and  "another"  have  the  possessive  forms, 
other 's  and  another 's,  respectively.  The  possessive  of  any  one, 
no  one,  everyone  and  similar  expressions,  however,  is  his;  as, 
"Everyone  loves  his  mother." 

This,  that,  those,  these,  have  no  possessive  forms. 

In  such  expressions  as,  "everybody  else's"  business, 
"anybody  else's"  business,  the  possessive  sign  is  suffixed  to 
"else." 

Either 's  and  neither 's  are  sometimes  used;  but  the  phrases, 
"of  either,"  "of  neither,"  are  better. 

Some  grammarians  say  that  nouns  as  well  as  pronouns 
have  the  inflection  called  case. 

Of  the  ten  possible  uses  that  the  noun  may  have  in  the 
sentence,  it  changes  its  form  to  indicate  but  one — its  use  as  a 
possessive;  consequently,  it  would  be  of  little  profit  to  study 
the  nominative  and  objective  cases  of  nouns  at  this  time. 


INFLECTION  OF   PRONOUNS 


155 


PERSON 

The  inflection  of  a  pronoun  to  indicate  whether  it  represents 
the  speaker  or  speakers  (I — ^we) ;  the  person  or  persons  spoken 
to  (thou — you);  or  the  person  or  persons,  the  thing  or  things 
spoken  of  (he,  she,  it^ — -they),  is  cahed  person. 

Nouns  do  not  change  their  form  to  indicate  person;  they 
are  used,  however,  to  refer  in  meaning  to  any  one  of  the  three 
persons.  Nouns  are  usually  used  in  the  third  person;  they  are 
used  in  the  first  or  second  person  only,  when  in  apposition  with 
pronouns  of  the  first  or  second  person. 

Example. — ^'I,  the  King  of  England,  command  you." 
''I  pray  you,  my  lord  and  master,  to  do  this  thing." 

The  inflection  of  pronouns  is  called  declension, 

DECLENSION  OF  PRONOUNS 
PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 


FIRST   PERSON 

Singular 

Plural 

Nom. 

I 

we 

Poss.     • 

my,  mine 

our,  ours 

Obj. 

me 

SECOND    PERSON 

(Solemn  style) 

us 

Singular 

Plural 

Nom. 

thou 

ye 

Poss. 

thy,  thine 

3'our,  yours 

Obj. 

thee 

(Common  style) 

3^0  u 

Nom. 

you 

you 

Poss. 

your,  yours 

your,  3'ours 

Obj. 

you 

you 

156  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

THIRD    PERSON 

Masc.  Fern.  Neut.         All  genders 

Nom.               he  she  it  they 

Poss.               his  her,  hers  its  their,  theirs 

Obj.                 him  her  it  them 

COMPOUND  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 
FIRST   PERSON 

Nom.  and  obj.  myself  ourselves 

SECOND    PERSON 

Nom.  and  obj.  thyself,  yourself    '  j^ourselves 

THIRD    PERSON 

Masc.     Fem.        Neut. 

Nom.  and  All  genders 

obj.  himself,  herself     itself,  themselves 

THE  RELATIVE  AND  THE  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUN 

Singular  and  Plural 

Nom..  who  which 

Poss.  whose  of  which  (whose) 

Obj .  whom  which 

COMPOUND  RELATIVES 

Singular  a7id  Plural 
Nom.  whoever,  whosoever 

Poss.  whosesoever 

Obj.  whomever,  whomsoever 

The  pronouns  ''one,"  ''other,"  "another,"  have  possessive 
forms. 

Singtdar.     one,   one's;  other,  other's;  another,  another's. 
Plural,     ones,  ones';  others,  others'. 


INFLECTION  OF  PRONOUNS 


157 


EXERCISE  43 

Giving  the  classification,  naming  the  inflections,  and  tell- 
ing the  use  of  a  word  in  a  sentence,  is  called  parsing  the  word. 

Parse  the  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences,  as  indicated 
below: 

1.  My  mind  to  me  a  kingdom  is. 

2.  He  that  would  have  the  kernel  must  crack  the  shell. 


pronoun 


kind 


1. 

my 

personal 

2. 

he 

personal 

3. 

that 

relative 

antecedent 

person  j  number 

1 

gender 

case 

use 

represents 

first     sing. 

common 

poss. 

modifies 

the  speaker 

"mind" 

represents 

third    sing. 

masc. 

nom. 

subj.  of 

person 

"must 

spoken  to 

1 

crack" 

he 

1 

subj.  of 
"would 
have" 

1 .  He  most  lives,  who  thinks  most,  feels  the  noblest,  acts  the  best. 

2.  Our  affections  are  our  life;  they  supply  our  warmth. 

3.  They  wondered  at  the  beauty  of  the  flowers. 

4.  He  had  a  sister,  who  was  a  child  too,  and  his  constant 

companion. 

5.  All  the  people  who  lived  in  the  village  went  to  the  church. 

6.  The  gunner  whose  negligence  had  caused  the  accident  killed 

himself. 

7.  It  was  her  beauty  that  attracted  the  attention  of  Prince  John. 

8.  When  all  was  ready,  each  took  his  place. 

9.  No  one  expected  Ivanhoe  to  ^^dn. 

10.  Each  met  the  other  nobly. 

11.  The  others  retreated  into  the  fort. 

12.  America,  my  native  land,  I  love  thee. 

13.  Happy  is  that  people  whose  annals  are  brief. 

14.  Nature  never  did  betray  the  heart  that  loved  her. 

15.  I  see  in  thy  gentle  e^^e  a  tear; 

They  turn  to  me  in  sorrowful  thought ; 
Thou  thinkest  of  friends,  the  good  and  dear, 
Who  were  for  a  time,  and  now  are  not, 
Like  these  children  of  cloud  and  frost, — 
That  glisten  a  moment  and  then  are  lost, — 
Flake  after  flake. 


158  I^ESSONS   AND    EXERCISES   IN   ENGLISH 

LESSON  44 
INFLECTION  OF  PRONOUNS— Continued 

We  learned  that  the  antecedent  of  a  pronoun  is  the  word 
or  words  to  which  the  pronoun  refers.  We  shall  now  learn  that 
a  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent  in  number,  person, 
and  gender. 

When  a  pronoun  represents  two  or  more  nouns  connected 
by  ^'and, '^  and  the  nouns  denote  different  persons  or  things, 
the  pronoun  should  be  plural;  as,  '^John  and  James  looked  for 
their  father. " 

When  a  pronoun  represents  two  or  more  nouns  connected 
by  ''and, '^  and  the  nouns  denote  the  same  thing,  the  pronoun 
should  be  singular;  as,  *'  The  secretary  and  treasurer  (one  person) 
has  resigned  his  office. '' 

If  a  pronoun  represents  two  or  more  singular  nouns  con- 
nected by  ''and,"  and  each  noun  is  preceded  by  "each," 
"every,"  or  "no,"  the  pronoun  should  be  singular;  as,  "Every 
oak  and  every  elm  has  shed  its  leaves. " 

If  a  pronoun  represents  two  or  more  nouns  connected  by 
"and,"  and  the  nouns  are  of  different  persons,  the  pronoun  agrees 
with  the  first  person  rather  than  with  the  second,  and  with  the 
second  rather  than  with  the  third;  as,  "James  and  I  have  our 
tickets  with  us;"   '^William  and  you  have  lost  your  tickets." 

The  fact,  that  there  is  no  singular  personal  pronoun  of 
common  gender  in  English,  is  somewhat  confusing  at  times. 

In  the  sentence,  "Each  boy  and  girl  may  keep — — book," 
the  meaning  of  the  sentence  seems  to  require  both  "his"  or 
"her;"  but  this  sounds  awkward.  Many  good  authorities  use 
the  plural  pronoun  in  such  sentences;  as,  "Every  boy  and  girl 
may  keep  their  book. " 

If  a  pronoun  represents  two  or  more  singular  nouns  of  the 
same  gender,  connected  by  "  or  "  or  "  nor, "  the  singular  pronoun 
should  be  used;  as,  "Either  the  motorman  or  the  conductor 
lost  his  hat; "   " Neither  Mary  nor  Alice  knew  her  lesson  today. " 


INFLECTION  OF  PRONOUNS  159 

The  absence  of  a  personal  pronoun  of  common  gender  gives 
us  trouble  in  singular  nouns  of  different  genders,  connected 
by  ''or"  or  ''nor."  Of  course,  it  is  wrong  to  say,  "Every  boy 
or  girl  may  keep  their  book. "  We  may  say  "  Every  boy  or  girl 
may  keep  his  or  her  book, "  or  change  the  form  of  the  sentence 
and  say  ''AH  the  boys  and  girls  may  keep  their  books. " 

When  a  pronoun  represents  a  collective  noun,  the  pronomi 
should  be  singular  and  should  be  in  the  neuter  gender  if  the  idea 
expressed  by  the  noun  is  singular;  as,  "The  jury  has  done  its 
duty;"  if  the  idea  expressed  by  the  noun  is  plural,  the  pronoun 
should  be  plural;  as,  " The  jury  have  gone  to  their  homes. " 

Sometimes  the  pronoun  "it"  is  used  indefinitely  without 
representing  any  particular  noun;   as,  "It  rains." 

In  personification,  a  masculine  or  a  feminine  pronoun  may 
])e  used  w^ith  a  neuter  noun;  as,  "  The  ship  lost  her  anchor. " 

If  the  antecedent  is  a  singular  noun  used  to  represent  both 
sexes,  the  masculine  form  of  the  pronoun  is  used;  as,  "Every 
student  knew  his  lesson. " 

Such  expressions  as  "  every , "  "either,"  "each,"  "anyone," 
"nobody,"  "man  after  man,"  are  singular. 

When  only  two  persons  or  things  are  spoken  of,  "either" 
or  "neither,"  should  be  used;  when  more  than  two  persons  or 
things  are  spoken  of,  "any  one"  or  "no  one"  should  be  used. 

The  rule  that  "each  other"  should  be  used  in  speaking  of 
two  persons  or  things  and  "one  another,"  in  speaking  of  more 
than  two  is  not  followed  by  all  good  writers. 

EXERCISE  44 

Indicate  on  paper  the  correct  pronoun  and  its  antecedent 
for  each  of  the  following  sentences,  as  suggested. 
"Has  everybody  finished •  lesson?" 

PRONOUN 


ANTECEDENT 
1.     Everybody 


his 


160  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

1.  Has  everybody  finished  ■ — ■ — lesson? 

2.  Poverty  and  wealth  have  each ■ — — -  own  temptations. 

3.  Neither  had  discovered mistake. 

4.  If  any  one  has  not  finished,  let  • hold  up 

hand. 

5.  My   classmate   and   companion   had   completed   

studies. 

6.  Everybody  should  think  for  • . 

7.  Each  contributed  what could. 

8.  Every  steamer  and  every  train  had  ■ complement 

of  passengers. 

9.  Either  James  or  William  will  let  3'ou  use  — — — ■ —  book. 

10.  The  elephant  is  distinguished  for  — — — — •  strength  and 

sagacity. 

11.  Everyone  stoutly  maintained ■ — —  innocence. 

12.  The  husband  and  father  cannot  support  — ■ — — ■ — -  family. 

13.  Let  each  take  • •  turn. 

14.  The  bat  is  nocturnal  in habits. 

15k  The   beaver   shows   great  skill   in   constructing   

dwellings. 

16.  The  committee  has  handed  in  • report. 

17.  The  dog  is  faithful  to ■  master. 

18.  Each  officer  and  each  soldier  wall  be  permitted  to  retain 

• •  arms. 

19.  Everybody  must  look  out  for 


20.  A  person  should  control •  wrath. 

21.  When  one  is  ill  ■ •  will  call  a  physician. 

22.  The  child  was  unconscious  of danger. 

23.  The  fox  is  noted  for  ~ cunning. 

24.  Spring  comes  forth, — •  work  of  gladness  to  contrive. 

25.  A  person  who  is  rude  in manners,  will  be  disliked. 

26.  Each  of  the  men  did  - — — — — ■  duty. 

27.  Truth  is  fearless,  yet  • is  meek  and  modest. 

28.  Ever}^  tree*  is  known  by  — ■ — ■  fruit. 

29.  This  is  such  bad  news  that  I  can  not  believe . 

30.  Each  of  the  women  did  — — — — — -  duty. 

31.  If  a  boy  or  girl  be  sent  to  the  principal,  should 

be  ashamed. 

32.  England  expects  every  man  to  do duty. 

33.  A  person's  manners  frequently  show ■  morals. 

34.  Everv  one  did  • — dutv. 


INFLECTION   OF   VERBS  161 

35.  Each  workman  must  provide  ■ — ■ ■ — •  own  tools. 

36.  Sharpen  my  shears  so  that ■ ■  will  cut. 

37.  A  person  who  knows    own  mind,  is  generally 

successful. 

38.  No  one  is  to  leave  ■ seat,  without  permission. 

39.  Let  each  of  the  girls  take  • —  place. 

40.  Envy  and  hatred  make  - — — - — —  possessor  unhappy. 

41.  If  any  one  knows,  — — ■ — — -  must  not  tell. 

42.  Many  a  man  will  sacrifice — •  reputation  for  a  trifle. 

43.  Every  lady  and  every  gentleman  must  register 

name. 

44.  Each  member  of  the  class  should  do — ■  duty. 

45.  Every  city  and  village  and  farm  furnished ■  quota 

of  soldiers. 
4B.  Joseph  and  Benjamin  rejoiced  to  see father. 

47.  Henry  and  James  will  do  — work. 

48.  Henry  or  James  will  do  ■ ■  work. 


LESSON  45 

INFLECTION  OF  VERBS 
NUMBER   AND    PERSON 

Part  I 

When  we  see  or  hear  the  verb  ''  is, "  we  know,  w^ithout  hear- 
ing or  seeing  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  that  its  subject  must  be  in 
the  singular  number,  third  person.  The  verb,  "am''  suggests  a 
subject  which  must  be  of  the  singular  number,  first  person. 
''Are"  suggests  a  subject  which  may  be  of  the  singular  number, 
second  person,  or  of  the  plural  number,  first,  second,  or  third 
person. 

Verbs  change  their  form  (have  an  inflection)  to  show  the 
number  and  the  person  of  their  subjects. 

The  verb  ''be,"  has  more  changes  to  show  number  and 
person  than  any  other  verb. 

Compare  the  following: 


162 


LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 


'> 


VERB  "be 

Singular 
1st  person:         I  am 
2nd  person :        You  are 
3rd  person:        He,  she,  or  it  is 


Plural 
We  are 
You  are 

They  are 


If  past  time  is  referred  to  by  the  verb,  the  correct  forms  are: 


Singular 
1st  person:         I  was 
2nd  person :        You  were 
3rd  person:        He,  she,  or  it  was 


Plural 
We  were 
You  were 
They  were 


VERB  ''see'' 


1st  person:         I  see  We  see 

2nd  person:       You  see  You  see 

3rd  person :        He,  she,  or  it  sees  They  see 

In  the  verb  ''see/'  as  in  almost  all  other  verbs,  only  tHe 
third  person,  singular,  differs  in  form  from  the  other  persons  and 
numbers.  The  third  person,  singular  number,  of  most  verbs 
ends  in  "s. " 

(The  verbs,  "need"  and  "dare,"  when  followed  with  an 
infinitive,  do  not  have  the  "s"  ending  in  the  third  person, 
singular  number;  as,  "  He  dare  not  go;"  "  He  need  not  do  it. ") 

In  making  the  "s"  form  of  verbs,  the  same  rules  generally 
apply  as  in  suffixing  " s "  to  nouns  to  form  the  plural;  as,  finish, 
finishes;  marry,  marries;  journey,  journeys. 

A  verb  must  agree  (must  be  'of  the  same  number  and  person) 
with  its  subject  in  number  and  person. 

To  decide  whether  a  subject  should  be  considered  singular 
or  plural,  we  must  look  beyond  the  form  of  the  subject  to  its 
meaning. 

The  following  should  be  studied  very  carefully: 

1.  The  verb  must  agree  with  tlie  meaning  of  the  subject; 
as,  "He  is  a  student;"  "They  ore  students." 

2.  A  collective  noun  requires  a  verb  in  the  plural  number  if 


INFLECTION   OF  VERBS  163 

the  individuals  in  the  collection  are  considered;  as,  ''The 
committee  are  eating  dinner. "  The  committee,  not  as  a  whole 
but  as  individuals,  are  eating.  If  the  collection  is  thought  of  as 
a  whole,  the  verb  should  be  in  the  singular  number;  as,  "The 
committee  was  in  session  all  night. ''  The  committee,  as  a  body, 
was  in  session. 

3.  If  a  subject  is  plural  in  form  but  singular  in  meaning, 
its  verb  should  be  singular;   as,  ''Five  dollars  is  the  price." 

4.  If  the  subject  consists  of  singular  nouns  that  refer  to  tlie 
same  person  or  thing,  the  subject  is  considered  singular;  as, 
"The  secretary  and  treasurer  (one  person)  was  absent;"  "A 
red  and  white  flag  (one  flag)  was  seen;"  "My  friend  and  neigh- 
bor (one  person)  was  there. " 

5.  If  the  subject  consists  of  singular  nouns  so  modified  as 
to  mean  different  persons  or  things,  the  subject  is  considered 
plural;  as,  "The  secretary  and  the  treasurer  (two  persons) 
were  absent;"  "A  red  and  a  white  flag  (two  flags)  were  seen;" 
"My  friend  and  my  neighbor  (two  persons)  were  there 
yesterday." 

6.  Possessive  modifiers  may  change  the  meaning  of  the  sub- 
ject; as,  "John  and  Henry's  (joint  ownership)  knife  is  lost;" 
"John  and  Henry's  knives  are  lost;"  "John's  knife  and  Henry's 
are  lost. "     (The  noun  knife  is  understood  after  Henry's.) 

7.  Sometimes  two  or  more  things  are  so  related  in  thought 
that  they  are  thought  of  as  one;  as,  "Bread  and  milk  is  a 
wholesome  diet;'*  "Bread  and  milk  are  sold  in  this  store."  In 
the  first  illustration,  bread  and  milk  is  the  name  of  a  kind  of 
food;  in  the  second,  bread  and  milk  are  spoken  of  as  different 
things. 

8.  If  the  subject  is  a  word  that  means  a  part  and  the  subject 
is  followed  by  "  of , "  the  number  of  the  verb  is  determined  by  the 
number  of  the  word  following  "of;"  as,  "Three-fourths  of  his 
time  is  wasted;"  "Three-fourths  of  the  students li^ere  absent." 
A  noun  that  expresses  a  part  is  called  a  partitive  noun.  The 
words  "plenty,"    "abundance,"   "variety,"   etc.,   are   in   the 


164  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

singular  number  and  are  not  strictly  partitive  words ;  but  they 
are  sometimes  so  used;  as,  ''There  is  plenty  of  time;"  ''There 
are  plenty  of  apples." 

9.  The  word  "number"  when  preceded  by  "the"  is  con- 
sidered singular;  as,  "The  number  of  pupils  enrolled  was 
large;"  "A  number  of  pupils  were  absent. " 

10.  Frequently  errors  are  made  in  sentences  such  as,  "  There 
are  more  than  one  student  in  the  office."  The  subject  of  the 
sentence  just  given  is  more  (meaning  more  students):  conse- 
quently, the  verb  should  be  plural.  "There  are  more  students 
than  one  in  the  office  "  is,  however,  a  much  better  sentence. 

Part  II 

11.  Two  or  more  singular  subjects  connected  by  "and" 
usually  have  their  verb  in  the  plural;  as,  "John  and  I  are  in  the 
same  class. " 

12.  Two  or  more  singular  subjects  connected  by  "and" 
require  a  singular  verb  if  they  are  preceded  by  "each,"  " every," 
''many  a,"  "no,"  "not,"  or  some  other  disuniting  word;  as, 
"Every  house  and  barn  was  destroyed." 

13.  If  one  of  two  subjects  connected  by  "and"  is  negative, 
the  verb  agrees  with  the  affirmative;  as,  "Books,  and  not 
pleasure,  are  his  defight." 

14.  If  several  subjects  follow  the  verb,  each  subject  may  be 
emphasized  by  having  the  verb  agree  with  the  first;  as,  "Thine 
is  the  kingdom,  and  the  power,  and  the  glory,  forever. " 

15.  If  the  subjects  are  connected  by  "as  well  as,"  "and 
also,"  "and  too,"  "with,"  "in  addition  to,"  the  verb  must 
agree  with  the  first;  as,  "I,  as  well  as  he,  a?n  a  student." 

16.  If  two  or  more  subjects  are  connected  by  "or"  or 
"nor, "  the  verb  agrees  with  the  nearest;  as,  "Either  the  teacher 
or  the  pupils  are  to  blame;"  "Either  the  pupils  or  the  teacher 
is  to  blame;"  "I  or  you  are  going;"  "You  or  I  am  going." 

17.  Since  a  relative  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in 
number,  person  and  gender,  it  follows^  that  a  verb,  having  a 


INFLECTION   OF  VERBS  165 

relative  pronoun  for  its  subject,  must  agree  with  the  antecedeni 
of  the  relative  pronoun;  as,  ''The  boy  who  was  here  went  home;" 
''The  boys  who  loere  here  went  home;''  *'This  is  the  only  one 
of  the  boys  who  loas  here. "  Because  of  the  use  of  ''only''  one, 
and  not  boys,  is  the  antecedent.  ''This  is  one  of  the  boys  who 
were  here.''     "Boys,"  and  not  one,  is  the  antecedent. 

18.  Care  should  be  exercised  in  the  use  of  mathematical 
expressions.  The  names  of  numbers  used  abstractly  are  con- 
sidered nouns  in  the  singular  number;  as,  "Fifty  is  one-half  of 
one  hundred."  Fractions  are  usually  singular;  as,  "Two- 
thirds  of  nine  is  six."  "J  bushel,"  "J  dollars,"  etc.,  are 
some  times  written;  but  in  construing  the  words,  "of"  should 
be  supplied;   as,  "J  of  a  bushel,  f  of  a  dollar." 

In  reading  equations,  "equals"  is  to  be  preferred  to  "is;" 
"4 -^  6  =  10"  should  be  read  "four  plus  six  equals  ten." 
"Equal"  and  "are,"  however,  are  sometimes  used  by  good 
authorities. 

Some  authorities  make  a  distinction  in  the  multiplication 
tables;  as,  "Five  times  one  is  five, "  "Five  times  two  are  ten. " 
In  the  first  sentence,  they  consider  the  subject  to  be  "one" 
(unit  or  thing)  taken  five  times.  In  the  second  sentence,  they 
consider  the  subject  to  be  "two"  (units  or  things)  taken  five 
times. 

"25  -j-  5  =  5"  should  be  read  "twenty-five  divided  by  five 
equals  five. 

EXERCISE  45 

Part  I 

Write  the  subject,  or  the  part  of  the  subject,  that  governs 
the  number  and  the  person  of  the  verb  in  each  of  the  following 
sentences  and  the  correct  form  of  the  verb,  as  suggested. 
''Nothing  but  singing  (was,  were)  heard." 


SUBJECT 
1.  Nothing 


VERB 


was 


166  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

1.  Nothing  but  singing  (was,  were)  lieard. 

2.  Her  food  (was,  were)  berries. 

3.  The  army  (was,  were)  defeated. 

4.  The  committee  (is,  are)  to  be  commended. 

5.  Three-fourths  of  the  students  (was,  were)  absent. 

6.  Three-fourths  of  the  work  (is,  are)  done. 

7.  When  (was,  were)  you  in  the  city? 

8.  His  desire  and  ambition  (is,  are)  to  get  money. 

9.  One  of  you  (are,  is)  mistaken. 

10.  You  (are,  is)  mistaken. 

11.  There  (is,  are)  several  persons  present. 

12.  A  number  of  men  (was,  were)  discharged. 

13.  There  (is,  are)  no  data  on  this  subject. 

14.  (Was,  were)  either  of  you  there? 

15.  The  memoranda  (was,  were)  destroyed. 

16.  Neither  of  the  men  (was,  were)  hurt. 

17.  One  of  the  books  (was,  w^ere)  lost. 

18.  Our  class  (is,  are)  waiting  for  an  examination. 

19.  A  black  and  white  horse  (was,  were)  sold. 

20.  Five  hundred  dollars  (is,  are)  a  large  sum. 

21.  The  jury  (was,  were)  discharged. 

22.  The  jury  (was,  were)  eating  dinner. 

23.  Your  pen,  ink,  and  paper  (is,  are)  on  the  desk. 

24.  The  committee  (was,  were)  unable  to  agree. 

25.  Two  dollars  (is,  are)  a  good  price. 

26.  Two  hours  (is,  are)  a  long  wait. 

27.  The  scissors  (is,  are)  not  in  their  place. 

28.  Every  one  (is,  are)  accountable  for  his  own  acts. 

Part  II 

29.  Where  (was,  were)  you? 

30.  The  public  (is,  are)  invited. 

31.  Our  nation  (is,  are)  prosperous. 

32.  Men,  as  well  as  money,  (was,  were)  needed. 

33.  Money,  as  well  as  men,  (was,  were)  needed. 

34.  Two  years'  interest  (is,  are)  due. 

35.  The  wages  of  sin  (is,  are) death. 

36.  How  (is,  are)  your  father  and  mother? 

37.  Every  one  of  the  prisoners  (is,  are)  to  be  set  free. 

38.  The  class  (is,  are)  delighted  with  the  prospect  of  a  vacation. 

39.  The  power  and  the  influence  (is,  are)  very  great. 


INFLECTION   OF  VERBS  167 

40.  A  great  variety  of  flowers  (was,  were)  seen  in  the  garden. 

41.  There  (seem,  seems)  to  be  no  others  here. 

42.  In  his  mind  there  (seem,  seems)  to  be  few  ideas  of  honesty. 

43.  There  (come,  comes)  the  girl. 

44.  One  or  more  persons  (was,  w^ere)  killed. 

45.  A  man  or  two  (was,  were)  lost. 

46.  The  son,  as  well  as  the  father,  (was,  were)  pleased. 

47.  Problem  after  problem  (was,  were)  given  by  the  teacher. 

48.  James,  if  not  Henry,  (was,  were)  at  the  meeting. 

49.  James,  and  Henry  too,  (was,  were)  at  the  meeting. 

50.  James,  and  not  Henry  (was,  were)  at  the  meeting. 

51.  Neither  James  nor  Henry  (was,  w^ere)  at  the  meeting. 

52.  James  or  Henry  (was,  were)  at  the  meeting. 

53.  There  (come,  comes)  the  girls. 

54.  Three  hundred  dollars  (was,  were)  paid  to  the  injured  man. 

55.  The  red  and  white  dog  (is,  are)  lost. 

56.  The  red  and  the  white  dog  (is,  are)  lost. 

57.  Where  (is,  are)  my  hat  and  coat? 

58.  A  number  of  persons  (w^as,  were)  injured. 

59.  The  nmnber  of  persons  injured  (was,  were)  large. 

60.  Give  me  one  of  the  books  that  (is,  are)  lying  on  the  desk. 

61.  Every  one  of  the  students  who  (was,  were)  absent  rnll  ])v 

punished. 

62.  One  times  three  (is,  are)  three. 

63.  Two  times  two  (is,  are)  four. 

64.  There  (come,  comes)  the  boys. 

65.  My  room  is  one  of  those  that  (overlook,  overlooks)  tlie 

street. 

66.  My  room  is  the  only  one  that  (overlook,  overlooks)  the 

street. 

67.  He  gave  us  one  of  the  most  difficult  examinations  that 

(was,  were)  given  this  term. 

68.  Bring  me  one  of  the  chairs  that  (is,  are)  on  the  veranda. 

69.  One  times  six  (is,  are)  six. 

70.  Neither  poverty  nor  riches  (is,  are)  hurtful  to  him. 

71.  No  care,  no  money,  no  time  (was,  were)  spared. 

72.  No  sound  but  their  own  voices  (was,  were)  heard. 

73.  For  the  result  of  this  wreck  he  or  they  (are,  is)  responsible. 

74.  Two  times  three  (is,  are)  six. 

75.  Twice  as  much  (is,  are)  too  much. 

76.  Every  book  and  every  paper  (was,  were)  lost. 


168  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES   IN   ENGLISH 

77.  Either  the  teacher  or  the  pupils  (is,  are)  to  blame. 

78.  Neither  the  pupils  nor  the  teacher  (is,  are)  to  blame. 

79.  He,  and  not  I,  (is,  am)  going. 

80.  I,  and  not  he,  (is,  am)  going. 

LESSON  46 
INFLECTION  OF  VERBS— Continued 

TENSE 

Verbs  have  an  inflection  to  indicate  the  time  at  which  the 
being  or  the  action  that  they  express,  takes  place. 
Study  the  following  sentences. 

1.  The  boy  sees. 

2.  The  boy  saw. 

3.  The  boy  will  see. 

In  the  first  sentence,  the  act  of  seeing  is  represented  as 
continuing  at  the  present  time;  the  verb  "sees"  is  said  to  be  in 
the  prese7it  tense. 

The  act  of  seeing  in  the  second  sentence,  is  represented 
as  having  taken  place  in  past  time;  the  verb  "saw"  is  said  to 
be  in  the  past  tense. 

In  the  third  sentence,  the  act  of  seeing  is  represented  as 
about  to  take  place  in  time  succeeding  that  in  which  the  sentence 
is  spoken;   the  verb  "will  see"  is  said  to  be  in  the  future  tense. 

The  inflection  of  the  verb  to  indicate  time  is  called  tense. 

The  present  tense  is  used  not  only  to  represent  an  action 
as  continuing  at  the  present  time  but  also  to  denote : 

1.  General  truths;   as,  "The  sun  gives  fight." 

2.  What  occurs  frequently  or  habitually;  as,  "Mr.  Smith 
teaches  in  our  school." 

3.  What  is  to  occur  in  the  future;  as,  "We  start  for  Florida 
tomorrow. " 

4.  Past  acts  as  if  seen  at  present;  (this  is  called  the  histori- 
cal present)  as,  "Washington  crosses  the  Delaware  amid  the 
floating  cakes  of  ice. " 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS 


169 


In  addition  to  representing  an  action  as  having  taken  place 
in  past  time,  tlie  past  tense  is  used  to  denote  what  occurred 
frequently  or  habitualty  in  the  past;  as,  ''He  always  took  a 
walk  before  breakfast. " 

The  future  tense  is  sometimes  used  to  express  what  occurs 
frequently;  as, ''  He  will  sit  by  the  hour  watching  the  children. " 

The  present,  past,  and  future  tenses  are  called  the  simple 
or  primary  tenses. 

The  following  are  the  forms  of  the  verbs,  "be"  and  "see," 
that  indicate  differences  in  time. 


•THE  VERB  "be" 

Singular 

Plural 

Present  Tense 

I  am 

We  are 

You  are 

You  are 

He  is 

They  are 

Past  Tense 

I  was 

We  were 

You  were 

You  were 

He  was 

They  were 

Future  Tense 

I  shall  be 

We  shall  be 

You  will  be 

You  will  be 

He  will  be 

They  will  be 

THE   VERB    "see" 

Singular 

Plural 

Present  Tense 

I  see 

We  see 

You  see 

You  see 

He  sees 

They  see 

Past  Tense 

I  saw 

We  saw 

You  saw 

You  saw 

He  saw 

They  saw 

170  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN   ENGLISH 

Future  Tense 
I  shall  see  We  shall  see 

You  will  see  You  will  see 

He  will  see  They  will  see 

*' Shall"  and  'Svill"  are  both  used  in  forming  the  future 
tense  of  verbs,  but  they  have  somewhat  different  meanings;  as, 

I  shall  go.     (Speaker  expects  to  go) 

I  will  go.     (Speaker  determines  to  go) 

You  shall  go.     (Speaker  determines  that  you  shall  go) 

You  will  go.     (Speaker  expects  you  to  go) 

He  shall  go.     (Speaker  determines  that  he  shall  go) 

He  will  go.     (Speaker  expects  him  to  go) 

1.  In  declarative  sentences,  to  express  expectation  or 
futurity  on  the  part  of  the  speaker,  use  *'  shall "  in  the  first  person 
and  ''will"  in  the  second  and  third. 

In  declarative  sentences,  to  express  determination  or  prom- 
ise on  the  part  of  the  speaker,  use  ''will"  in  the  first  person  and 
*' shall"  in  the  second  and  third. 

2.  In  interrogative  sentences,  "shall"  is  always  used  in  the 
first  person.  When  the  subject  is  in  the  second  or  the  third 
person,  the  word  should  be  used  in  asking  the  questions  that  is 
required  in  the  answer;  as. 

Shall  I  go  tomorrow?     (You  shall) 

Shall  you  be  able  to  go  tomorrow?     (I  shall) 

Will  you  promise  to  go  tomorrow?     (I  will) 

8.  If  a  condition  is  referred  to,  over  which  the  speaker  has 
no  control,  "shall"  should  be  used  in  the  first  person  and  "will, " 
in  the  second  and  third;  as, 

I  shall  be  disappointed  if  you  do  not  go. 

I  shall  be  obliged  to  3'ou  if  you  go. 

I  shall  be  glad  to  have  you  go. 

I  shall  be  pleased  if  you  go. 

He  will  be  pleased  if  he  goes. 

I  think  I  shall  be  ill. 

I  think  he  will  be  ilL 


INFLECTION   OF   VERBS  171 

4.  In  direct  quotations  (those  in  which  the  exact  language 
is  reported),  *' shall"  and  'Svill"  are  used  the  same  as  in  de- 
clarative forms;  as,  He  said,  "  I  will  go  without  fail. "  (Promise) 
He  said,  "  I  shall  be  a])le  to  go. "     (Expectation) 

5.  In  indirect  quotations  (those  in  which  the  exact  language 
is  not  reported),  if  the  subjects  do  not  refer  to  the  same  person, 
''shall "  and  "  will "  are  used  the  same  as  in  the  declarative  form ; 
as,  "Father  says,  I  shall  go."  (Futurity)  ''Father  says, 
John  will  go. "     (Futurity) 

In  indirect  quotations,  if  the  subjects  refer  to  the  same 
person,  "shall"  is  used  in  all  persons  to  express  futurity;  and 
"  will "  is  used  in  all  persons  to  express  determination  or  promise; 
as,  "  Father  says,  he  shall  be  able  to  go. "  (Futurity)  "  Father 
says  that  he  will  go. "  (Promise)  ''You  say  that  you  shall  go." 
(futurity)     "You  say  that  you  will  go."     (promise) 

6.  In  dependent  clauses  introduced  by  "if,"  "though," 
"although,"  "until,"  "who,"  "that,"  etc.,  "shall"  should  be 
used  in  all  persons  to  express  futurity ;  and  "will"  should  be  used 
in  all  persons  to  express  the  idea  of  willingness^  consenting,  or 
wishing  on  the  part  of  the  person  represented  by  the  subject 
of  the  clause;  as,  "  If  he  will  go,  I  shall  be  glad. "     (Willingness) 

EXERCISE    46 

Write  the  number  of  and  the  correct  word  for  each  of  the 
following  sentences. 

SHALL,    WILL 

1 .  I  think  it rain  soon.     (Futurit}^ 

2.  I  go  to  prepare  a  place  for  you,  but  I come  again. 

(Promise) 

3.  We never  regTet  helping  a  brother  in  distress. 

(Futurity) 

4.  AVhen we  see  you  again? 

5.  The  umbrella ■  be  returned  this  evening,  I  assure 

you.     (Promise) 

6.  I  go  or  not? 

7.  You  hear   of   his   success   to-morrow,    I   think. 

(Futurity) 


172  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES   IN   ENGLISH 

8.  I  ■ — •  be  pleased  to  hear  from  you.     (Futurity) 

9.  I  think  we  —  have  a  heavy  storm  to-day.     (Fu- 

turity) 

10.  ■ ■  we  go  w^ith  you  to  the  station? 

1 1 .  ■ I  send  these  books  by  the  American  Express? 

12.  • •  you  go  this  evening  or  to-morrow? 

13.  Though  he  slay  me,  yet I  trust  in  him.     (Deter- 

mination) 

14.  • •  you  be  of  age  this  year? 

15.  Nothing make  me  break  my  word.     (Determi- 

nation) 

16.  I •  never  see  him  again!     Never!  (Futurity) 

17.  He  — ■ — — — •  pay  me  immediately.     (Determination) 

18.  Help  me,  or  I  — ■ — ■ — —  drown.     (Futurity) 

19.  Though  I  die,  yet  I not  deny  thee.     (Promise) 

20.  I  ■ ■  be  obliged  to  you  if  you do  me  this 

favor.     (Futurity) 

21.  Hear  me,  for  I  ■ speak.     (Determination) 

22.  we  be  there  in  time? 

23.  I  fear  I  ■ ■  be  too  late  for  the  lecture.     (Futurity) 

24.  I •  suffer  if  I  do  not  do  as  I  am  requested.     (Fu- 

turity) 

25.  ■ •  I  return  your  magazine  to  you? 

26.  Where  • •  I  meet  you? 

27.  We  — — reward  her  if  she  remains  faithful.    (Promise) 

28.  I  think  we  • — -  have  rain  to-day.     (Futurity) 

29.  I  • ■  not  tolerate  his  insolence.     (Determination) 

30.  I  ■ •  be  very  anxious  until  I  hear  from  you.     (Fu- 

turity) 

31.  If    you    call,     I    accompan}^    you. 

(Promise) 

32.  I  have  permission  to  go? 

33.  • ■  I  meet  you  on  Wednesday? 

34.  We ■ — —  do  our  duty.     (Promise) 

35.  When  • ■  we  three  meet  again? 

36.  We  — — — —  be  disappointed.     (Futurity) 

37.  We  — - — — —  be  pleased  to  have  you  call.     (Futurity) 

38.  Do  you  think  we  ■ ■ — ■  have  rain? 

39.  He  fears  that  he  ■ — •  miss  the  train.     (P^uturity) 

40.  ■ ■  I  find  you  at  home? 

41.  he  have  time  to  get  his  ticket? 


INFLECTION    OF  VERBS  173 

42. you  be  surprised  to  hear  it? 

43.  I  hope  he  be  in  time  to  get  good  seats.     (Fu- 

turity) 

44.  He  has  resolved  that  he  not  answer  the  letter. 

(Determination) 

45.  Howard  thinks  his  brother  probably  live  to  old 

age.     (Futurity) 

46.  We •  find  ourselves  much  mistaken.     (Futurity) 

47.  John  thinks  he •  be  sick  to-morrow.     (Futurity) 

48.  If  you •  call  for  me,  I be  glad  to  go  with 

you.     (Futurity) 

49.  •  you  be  at  leisure  after  dinner? 

50.  ■  you  have  time  to  get  your  ticket? 

^l .  yQ^  fjo  me  the  favor  to  reply  by  return  mail? 

52.  ■  there  be  time  to  get  our  tickets? 

53.  He  says  James be  sick  to-morrow.     (Futurity) 

54.  Howard  thinks   he   — •  probably   live   to   old   age. 

(Futurity) 

55.  I  ■  be  obliged  to  you,  for  A^our  autograph.     (Fu- 

turity) 

56.  Yes,  I  fear  that  he  -— - — —  miss  the  train.     (Futurity) 

57.  You •  not  enter  the  house  again.     (Determination) 

58.  I  —  go;  nobody  hinder  me.     (Determi- 

nation) 

59.  I  trust  I remember  the  password.     (Futurity) 

60.  he  be  allowed  to  join  the  club? 

LESSON  47 

INFLECTION  OF  VERBS— Continued 

SHOULD WOULD 

7.  Historically  ''should"  and  "would"  are  the  past  tenses 
of  ^'  shall "  and  ''  will ; "  and  consequently,  in  corresponding  uses 
they  follow  the  same  rules.  ''Should,"  however,  sometimes 
means  ''ought"  and  is  used  in  the  meaning  of  propriety  or 
obhgation  with  all  subjects  alike;  as,  "I  should  do  my  duty;" 
"He  should  do  his  duty."  "Would"  may  be  used  to  express  a 
wish;   as,  "I  would  that  I  had  gone."     "Would"  is  also  used 


174  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

in  all  three  persons  to  express  willingness,  habit,  or  custom;  as, 
I  would  give  it  to  you  if  I  could.  (Willingness)  *'He  would 
often  go  to  sleep  in  class. "  (Habit)  '^He  would  go  to  church 
on  Sunday. "     (Custom) 

EXERCISE    47 

"Write  the  number  of  and  the  correct  wor.l  for  each  of  the 
following  sentences. 

SHOULD,    WOULD 

1.  I  ■ •  like  to  attend  the  meeting. 

2.  If  the  horse  were  to  run  away,  I — — •  be  frightened. 

3.  You obey  your  teacher. 

4.  I  — — ■ — ■ — ■  have  gone  if  it  had  not  rained. 

5.  I never  have  consented  to  such  an  agreement. 

6.  He  ~~ ■ — ■  support  his  family. 

7.  If  I  had  known  this,  I  not  have  given  him  the 

money. 

8.  If  he •  find  it,  I •  rejoice. 

9.  A  man  who  — — ■ — ■ — -  do  such  a  thing •  be  punished. 

10.  The  Indians — ~  suddenly  spring  upon  the  settlers. 

11.  He  said  he —  go  if  it please  me. 

12.  If  he  succeeded,  I ' b  ^  happy. 

13.  Grandmother  —  -  knit  for  hours  at  a  time. 

14.  She —  not  work  so  hard. 

15.  If  you — —  hear  of  a  situation,  I  Avish  you  — — —  - 

let  me  know. 

16.  If  it  — — ■ •  rain,  you  • — — — —  need  your  umbrella. 

17.  I  ■ — — -  be  glad  if  it  • ■  stop  raining. 

18.  I  — — ■ — ■ —  that  my  father  were  here. 

19.  I  — — — — •  like  to  see  you  soon. 

20.  I  knew  I  — — — — ■  dislike  the  cit}-. 

21.  If  I  were  you,  I not  do  that  thing. 

2*^.  I  never  —  - — — —  consent  to  do  that. 

23.  If  I  were  to  offer  him  water,  he  ■ — ■ — — — ■  drink  it. 

24.  Were  he  to  see  me,  he  • ■  know  me. 

25.  If  John  knew  it,  he  • be  provoked. 

26.  Father  thought  he ■  be  able  to  go,  but  mother  said 

he : not  go. 

27.  I •  like  to  have  the  goods  shipped  at  once. 


INPXECTIOX   OF   VERBS  175 

2S.  I  hoped  that  they ■  accept  the  offer. 

29.  I  — — ■ — ■ — ■  be  sorry  to  have  you  go. 

30.  He  — — ■ — — -  be  sorry  to  hear  this. 

31.  The  teacher  said  that  you be  promoted. 

32.  If  I  knew  his  address,  I ■  write  to  him. 

33.  We prefer  to  go  to  the  theatre. 

34.  I  feared  that  he •  not  come. 

35.  John  feared  that  he  • — ■ — ■ — ■ — -  miss  the  boat. 

36.  — — ■ ■  you  go  if  you  were  I? 

37.  I — —  think  you not  go. 

38.  We  ■ — — — —  enjoy  the  ride. 

39.  He  — — •  not  flatter  himself  with  that  delusion. 

40.  I  never  was  what  I  — •  be. 

41.  She  ■ not  walk,  he  said,  through  the  dust  and  heat 

of  the  noonday. 

42.  If  he invite  us,  we  • have  to  decline. 

43.  He •  not  like  to  be  left  behind. 

44.  She ■  be  allowed  to  go. 

45.  I  feared  that  they — •  refuse  to  do  it. 

46.  It •  be  delivered  at  once. 

47.  If  it  ■ — ^ — — ■ —  be  as  hot  as  it  is  to-day,  we -not  go. 

48.  I  — — — — ■  do  it  if  they •  pay  me  for  it. 

49.  George -^  not  be  found  in  such  company. 

50.  You laugh  if  you hear  the  story. 

51.  She ■ ■  not  work  so  steadily. 

LESSON  48 
INFLECTION  OF  VERBS— Continued 

In  addition  to  indicating  the  time  of  the  action,  verbs  ma}^ 
suggest  something  of  the  condition  of  the  action  that  they 
represent. 

Study  the  following  sentences : 

1.  I  have  seen  the  picture. 

2.  I  had  seen  the  picture  before  you  came. 

3.  I  shall  have  seen  the  picture  before  to-morrow. 

In  the  first  sentence,  the  action  is  represented  as  completed 
])revious  to  the  time  of  speaking,  Ijut  as  extending  up  to  it;  the 
verb,  ^'haA^e  seen, "  is  said  to  be  in  the  present  perfect  tense. 


176  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES   IN   ENGLISH 

In  the  second  sentence,  the  action  is  represented  as  com- 
pleted in  past  time  which  does  not  extend  to  the  present  but 
which  does  extend  to  some  past  time  understood  or  indicated  in 
the  sentence  (before  you  came);  the  verb,  ''had  seen, '^  is  said 
to  be  in  the  past  'perfect  tense. 

In  the  third  sentence,  the  action  is  represented  as  completed, 
not  in  the  past  or  in  the  present  time,  but  at  some  future  time 
understood  or  expressed  in  the  sentence  (before  to-morrow) ; 
the  verb,  ''shall  have  seen,"  is  said  to  be  in  t\\Q  Juture  perfect 
tense. 

The  present,  past,  and  future  perfect  tenses  are  called  the 
perfect  or  secondary  tenses. 

The  following  are  the  forms  of  the  verbs,  ''be"  and  "see," 
in  the  perfect  tenses. 

THE  VERB  "be" 

Singular  Plural 

Present  Perfect  Tense 
I  have  been  We  have  been 

You  have  been  You  have  been 

He  has  been  They  have  been 

Past  Perfect  Tense 
I  had  been  We  had  been 

You  had  been  You  had  been 

He  had  been  They  had  been 

Future  Perfect  Tense 
I  shall  have  been  We  shall  have  been 

You  will  have  been  You  will  have  been 

He  will  have  been  They  will  have  been 


THE    VERB    "see" 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Present   Perfect    Tense 

I  have  seen 

We  have  seen 

You  have  seen 

You  have  seen 

He  has  seen 

They  have  seen 

INFLECTION   OF  VERBS  177 

Past  Perfect  Tense 
I  had  seen  We  had  seen 

You  had  seen  You  had  seen 

He  had  seen  They  had  seen 

Future  Perfect  Tense 
I  shall  have  seen  We  shall  have  seen 

You  will  have  seen  You  will  have  seen 

He  will  have  seen  They  ■\\dll  have  seen 

An  examination  of  the  perfect  tense  forms  just  given,  will 
show  that  the  perfect  tenses  of  these  verbs  are  formed  by  using 
''have/'  *'had,"  and  *'has''  (forms  of  the  verb  have),  and 
the  forms  ''been"  and  "seen"  of  the  verbs  *'be"  and  "see." 

"  Been  "  and  "  seen  "  are  called  past  participles  of  these  verbs. 

The  past  participle  of  a  verb  is  the  form  of  the  verb  that  is 
used  with  some  form  of  the  verb  *'have"  to  constitute  the  per- 
fect tenses. 

"Have,"  "had,"  and  "has"  are  called  helping  or  auxil- 
iary verbs.  Any  verb  that  is  used  to  help  in  forming  the  dif- 
ferent mode  and  tense  forms  of  other  verbs,  is  called  an  auxiliary 
verb.  The  common  auxiliary  verbs  are  "be,"  "do,"  "have," 
"will,"  "can,"  "may,"  "shall,"  and  "must." 

The  present  tense  of  "have"  is  used  to  form  the  present 
perfect;  the  past,  to  form  the  past  perfect;  and  the  future,  to 
form  the  future  perfect. 

Following  are  the  forms  of  have : 

Singular  Plural 


Present  Tense 

I  have 

We  have? 

You  have 

You  have 

He  has 

Past   Tense 

They  have 

I  had 

We  had 

You  had 

You  had 

He  had 

They  had 

178  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

Future  Tense 

I  shall  have  We  shall  have 

You  will  have  You  will  have 

He  will  have  They  will  have 

Past  participles  differ  in  the  manner  in  which  they  arc 
formed  from  their  verbs,  and  we  classify  verbs  according  to  the 
manner  in  which  their  past  tense  and  past  participle  are  formed. 

If  the  past  tense  and  the  past  participle  of  a  verb  are 
form^ed  by  suffixing  *'d'*  or  ''ed''  to  the  present  tense  form, 
the  verb  is  called  a  regular  verb;  as,  walk,  walked,  walked. 

The  verbs  that  do  not  form  their  past  tense  and  past  parti- 
ciple in  this  manner  are  called  irregular  verbs;  as,  see,  saw,  seen. 

The  present  tense  form  of  some  regular  verbs  undergoes 
a  slight  change,  however,  in  forming  the  past  tense  and  the 
past  participle. 

If  the  verb  ends  in  ''y"  preceded  by  a  consonant,  the  ''y" 
is  changed  to  "i"  and  '*ed"  is  suffixed;  as,  imply,  implied; 
cry,  cried. 

If  the  verb  ends  in  ''e, "  ^'d"  only  is  suffixed;  as,  introduce, 
introduced. 

If  the  verb  ends  in  "^y,"  the  "y"  is  changed  to  *'i"  and 
^'d'^  only  is  suffixed;  as,  lay,  laid;  say,  said. 

In  a  few  verbs,  the  ''d"  takes  the  place  of  the  final  vowel 
or  consonant  of  the  present;  as,  sell,  sold;  shoe,  shod. 

Some  verbs  ending  with  '^d"  in  the  present  change  the 
"d"  to  "t-/'  as,  lend,  lent;  build,  built. 

The  present  tense,  the  past  tense,  and  the  past  participle 
are  called  the  'pri?icipal  parts  of  the  verb. 

The  following  are  the  principal  parts  of  some  of  the  verbs 
in  common  use. 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS 


179 


{For  reference) 

Present 

Past 

Past  Participle 

arise 

arose 

arisen 

awake 

awok(^,  awaked 

awaked 

abide 

abode 

abode 

alight 

alighted,  alit 

alighted,  alit 

bear  (bring  forth) 

bore 

borne,  born 

bear  (carry) 

bore 

borne 

be  (am,  is,  are) 

was 

been 

begin 

began 

begun 

beat 

beat 

beaten,  beat 

bend 

bent 

bent 

bereave 

bereft,  bereaved 

bereft,  bereaved 

behold 

beheld 

beheld 

beseech 

besought 

besought 

bet 

bet 

bet 

bid  (command) 

bade 

bidden 

bid  (offer  money) 

bid 

bid 

bite 

bit 

bitten 

bind 

bound 

bound 

blend 

blent,  blended 

blent,  blended 

bleed 

bled 

bled 

blow 

blew 

blown 

bless 

blessed,  blest 

blessed,  blest 

breed 

bred 

bred 

break 

broke, 

broken 

buy 

bought 

bought 

build 

built,  builded 

built,  builded 

burst 

burst 

burst 

bring 

brought 

brought 

catch 

caught 

caught 

cast 

cast 

cast 

cleave  (split) 

clove,  cleft 

cloven,  cleft,  cleaved 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

180 


LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 


Present 

Past 

Past  Participle 

chide 

chid 

chidden,  chid 

cleave  (to  cling  to) 

cleaved 

cleaved 

climb 

climbed 

climbed 

cling 

clung 

clung 

come 

came 

come 

cost 

cost 

cost 

creep 

crept 

crept 

crow 

crowed,  crew 

crowed 

cut 

cut 

cut 

clothe 

clad,  clothed 

clad,  clothed 

dare 

dared,  durst 

dared 

do 

did 

done 

dive 

dived,  dove 

dived 

deal 

dealt,  dealed 

dealt,  dealed 

dig 

dug 

dug,   digged 

dream 

dreamed,  dreamt 

dreamed,  dreamt 

draw 

drew 

drawn 

drink 

drank 

drunk,  drunken 

dwell 

dwelt,  dwelled 

dwelt,  dwelled 

dress 

drest,  dressed 

drest,  dressed 

drive 

drove 

driven 

eat 

ate 

eaten 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

forget 

forgot 

forgotten,  forgot 

forsake 

forsook 

forsaken 

forbear 

forbore 

forborne 

find 

found 

found 

fling 

flung 

flung 

fly 

flew 

flown 

flee 

fled 

fled 

feed 

fed 

fed 

fight 

fought 

fought 

feel 

felt 

felt 

INFLECTION   OF  VERBS 


181 


Present 

Past 

Past  Participle 

fall 

fell 

fallen 

fling 

flung 

flung 

give 

gave 

given 

gild 

gilded,  gilt 

gilded,  gilt 

gird 

girded,  girt, 

girded,  girt 

get 

got 

got,  gotten 

grave 

graved 

graved,  graven 

go 

went 

gone 

grind 

ground 

ground 

grow 

grew 

grown 

heave 

hove,  heaved 

hove,  heaved 

have 

had 

had 

hear 

heard 

heard 

hang 

hung,  hanged  (in 
legal  sense) 

hung,  hanged 

hold 

held 

held 

hide 

hid 

hidden 

hit 

hit 

hit 

hew 

hewed 

hewn,  hewned 

hurt 

hurt 

hurt 

keep 

kept 

kept 

knit 

knit,  knitted 

knit,  knitted 

kneel 

knelt,  kneeled 

knelt,  kneeled 

know 

knew 

known 

lend 

lent 

lent 

lead 

led 

led 

leave 

left 

left 

lay 

laid 

laid 

lade 

laded 

laded,  laden 

lie  (to  recline) 

lay 

lain 

lean 

leaned,  leant 

leaned,  leant 

learn 

learned,  learnt 

learned,  learnt 

light 

lit,  lighted 

lit,  lighted 

182 


LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES   IN    ENGLISH 


Present 

Past 

Past  Participle 

leap 

leaped, 

leapt 

leaped,  leapt 

lose 

lost 

lost 

let 

let 

let 

mean 

meant 

meant 

make 

made 

made 

mow 

mowed 

mowed,  mown 

meet 

met 

met 

plead 

pleaded,  plead 

pleaded,  plead 

pay 

paid 

paid 

put 

put 

put 

pen 

pent,  penned 

pent,  penned 

quit 

quit,  quitted 

quit,  quitted 

rend 

rent 

rent 

read 

read 

read 

ring 

rang 

rung 

ride 

rode 

ridden 

rid 

rid 

rid 

run 

ran 

run 

rive 

rived 

riven,  rived 

rise 

rose 

risen 

rot 

rotted 

rotten,  rotted 

saw 

sawed 

sawn,  sawed 

say 

said 

said 

seek 

sought 

sought 

sell 

sold 

sold 

see 

saw 

seen 

seethe 

seethed, 

sod 

seethed,  sodden 

send 

sent 

sent 

sew 

sewed 

sewed,  sewn 

set 

set 

set 

shake 

shook 

shaken 

shed 

shed 

shed 

shear 

sheared 

sheared,  shorn 

INFLECTION   OF  VERBS 


183 


Present 

Pad 

Past  Par'tidple 

shine 

shone 

shone 

shoot 

shot 

shot 

shoe 

shod 

shod 

shrink 

shrank, 

shrunk 

shrunk,  shrunken 

shave 

shaved 

shaven,  shaved 

show 

showed 

shown 

shred 

shred,  shredded 

shred,  shredded 

shrive 

shrived, 

shrove 

shriven  shrived 

shut 

shut 

shut 

sink 

sank 

sunk 

sing 

sang 

sung 

sit 

sat 

sat 

sleep 

slept 

slept 

sling 

slung 

slung 

slay 

slew 

slain 

slink 

slunk,  slank 

slunk,  slank 

smell 

smelt,  smelled 

smelt,  smelled 

slit 

slit,  slittod 

slit,  slitted 

slide 

slid 

slidden,  slid 

sow 

sowed 

sown 

smite 

smote 

smitten 

speak 

spoke 

spoken 

spell 

spelled, 

spelt 

spelled,  spelt 

spill 

spilled, 

spilt 

spilled,  spilt 

speed 

sped 

sped 

spend 

spent 

spent 

spin 

spun 

spun 

spit 

spit,  spat 

spit,  spat 

split 

split 

split 

spread 

spread 

spread 

spoil 

spoiled , 

spoilt 

spoiled,  spoilt 

stand 

stood 

stood 

spring 

sprang 

sprung 

184 


LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 


Present 

Past 

Past  Participle 

stave 

stove,  staved 

stove,  staved 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

sting 

stung 

stung 

stick 

stuck 

stuck 

stay 

stayed,  staid 

stayed,  staid 

strew 

strewed 

strewn,  strewed 

strike 

struck 

struck,  stricken 

stride 

strode 

stridden 

strive 

strove 

striven 

string 

strung 

strung 

swear 

swore 

sworn 

sweep 

swept 

swept 

sweat 

sweated,  sweat 

sweated,  sweat 

swell 

swelled 

swelled,  swollen 

swing 

s^vung 

swung 

s\vim 

swam 

swum 

take 

took 

taken 

tell 

told 

told 

teach 

taught 

taught 

tear 

tore 

torn 

thrive 

throve,  thrived. 

thriven,  thrived 

throw 

threw 

thrown 

think 

thought 

thought 

tread 

trod 

trod,  trodden 

thrust 

thrust 

thrust 

wear 

wore 

worn 

wake 

woke,  waked 

woke,  waked 

weep 

wept 

wept 

weave 

wove 

woven 

whet 

whet,  Avhetted 

whet,  whetted 

win 

won 

won 

wet 

wet,  wetted 

wet,  wetted 

work 

worked,  wrought 

worked,  wrought 

INFLECTION   OF   VERB^ 


185 


Present 

Past 

Past  Participle 

wind 

wound 

wound 

wring 

wrung 

wrung 

write 

wrote 

written 

can 

could 

may 

might 

must 

shall 

should 

will 

would 

ought 

quoth 

beware 

methinks 

methought 

EXERCISE   48 

Either  by  an  oral  or  by  a  written  exercise  the  teacher 
should  satisfy  himself  that  the  student  knows  the  principal 
parts  of  the  verbs  given  in  Lesson  48. 


LESSON  49 

INFLECTION  OF  VERBS— Continued 

SEQUENCE    OP   TENSES 

The  tense  of  a  verb  in  a  dependent  clause  usually  depends 
upon  that  of  the  verb  in  the  independent  clause ;  this  dependence 
is  called  the  law  of  the  sequence  of  tenses. 

The  following  sentences  illustrate  this  dependence  of  tense : 

I  think  he  will  go. 

I  thought  he  would  go. 

I  have  co7ne  that  he  77iay  go. 

I  had  come  that  he  might  go. 

John  will  he  frightened  if  he  sees  that. 

John  would  be  frightened  if  he  saw  that. 

John  would  have  been  frightened  if  he  had  seen  that. 


186  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

If  the  verb  in  the  independent  clause  is  changed  from  the 
present  to  the  past,  the  present  tense  in  the  dependent  clause 
should  be  changed  to  the  past,  and  the  present  perfect  tense 
to  the  past  perfect. 

Study  the  following  examples : 
Present:  I  write  when  I  am  not  busy. 
Past :  I  wrote  when  I  was  not  busy. 
Present:  Father  says  we  may  go. 
Past:  Father  said  we  might  go. 
Present:  You  knoio  he  has  gone. 
Past:  You  knew  he  had  gone. 

EXERCISE    49 

Rewrite  the  following  sentences  changing  the  verb  in  the 
independent  clause  to  the  past  tense. 

1.  He  thinks  he  will  go. 

2.  He  thinks  I  have  gone. 

3.  William  is  absent  whenever  it  rains. 

4.  She  studies  hard  because  she  desires  to  succeed. 

5.  He  gives  money  to  all  who  ask  him. 

6.  Where  is  the  chair  in  which  the  boy  is  sitting? 

7.  We  are  sorry  there  has  been  any  misunderstanding,  and 

hope  that  you  will  not  be  inconvenienced. 

8.  All  orders  that  reach  us  before  the  first  of  the  month  will 

be  filled. 

9.  We  find  that  John  Smith  has  failed  to  account  for  the  money. 

10.  I  desire  to  get  a  position  where  there  is  a  good  opportunity 

for  advancement. 

11.  It  seems  to  me  that  the}^  have  misrepresented  the  subject. 

12.  We  know  where  the  flowers  grow. 

13.  I  think  that  you  are  correct. 

14.  His  debts,  which  are  many,  are  paid  by  his  father. 

15.  The  star  which  shines  in  the  evenino;  is  almost  red. 


■■& 


Rewrite  the  following  sentences  changing  the  verb  in  the 
independent  clause  to  the  present  tense. 

1.  William  gave  me  the  book  that  I  might  read  it. 

2.  I  thought  I  could  go,  but  I  was  mistaken. 


INFLECTION"   OF  VERBS  187 

3.  He  was  delighted  when  he  thought  of  what  we  had  accom- 

pUshed. 

4.  He  studied  the  lesson  so  well  that  he  could  not  fail. 

5.  The  horse  ran  away  because  he  saw  the  engine. 

6.  The  verdict  was,  that  he  was  guilty. 

7.  He  left  New  York,  where  he  was  doing  well. 

8.  There  is  an  elevator  which  carries  freight. 

9.  The  flowers  that  came  in  the  spring  were  very  welcome. 
10.  The  house  that  was  freshly  painted  shone  in  the  sunlight. 

LESSON  50 

INFLECTION  OF  VERBS— Continued 

MODE 

Mode  is  a  classification  of  verb  forms  according  to  the  man- 
ner of  assertion. 

We  must  remember  that  tlie  mode  of  a  verb  depends  on 
the  manrier  in  which  the  thought  expressed  by  the  verb  is  under- 
stood rather  than  on  the  foi^m  of  the  verb.  Thought  and  not 
form  should  be  considered  in  determining  the  mode  of  a  verb. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  are  few  changes  in  the  form  of 
the  verb  to  indicate  mode.  There  are  many  forms  of  the  verb 
which  may  be  used  in  more  than  one  mode;  the  mode  of  such 
forms  is  determined  by  the  thought  expressed  by  these  forms. 

INDICATIVE   MODE 

A  verb  that  represents  an  action  as  real  or  certain  is  said  to 
be  in  the  indicative  mode;  as,  ''He  studies;'^   ''He  will  study. ^^ 

That  a  sentence  has  the  interrogative  form,  does  not  affect 
the  mode  of  the  verb.  The  mode  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
declarative  form;  as,  *'Does  he  study?" 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MODE 

A  verb,  however,  may  express  a  condition,  the  contrary 
of  which,  it  implies  to  be  true;  or  a  wish;  or  an  action  as  desired, 


188  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

or  feared,  or  as  untrue;  as,  *'//!  ^vere  in  his  place,  I  would  go. " 
"  I  wish  my  father  were  here.  '^ 

When  the  verb  indicates  certain  phases  of  condition,  un- 
certainty or  unreality,  the  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  subjunctive  mode. 

A  comparison  of  the  indicative  forms  with  the  subjunctive 
forms  of  the  verb  *M3e  "  will  show  that  the  present  tense  indicative 
and  the  present  tense  subjunctive  have  no  forms  in  common. 
(For  all  reference  to  verb  forms,  see  Lesson  58,  p.  213.) 

In  the  past  tense,  *'If  we  were/'  *'If  you  were/'  and  '^If 
they  were, ''  are  the  same  in  both  modes. 

In  the  present  perfect  tense,  third  person,  singular  number, 
the  subjunctive  differs  from  the  indicative. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   OF   CONDITION 

Not  all  conditions,  however,  are  expressed  in  the  sub- 
junctive mode. 

If  a  supposition  or  a  condition  is  assumed  to  be  true  or 
is  expressed  without  any  suggestion  as  to  its  truth,  the  verb 
should  be  in  the  indicative  mode;  as,  ''If  he  is  old  (and  he  is), 
he  is  still  active;''  ''If  he  is  guilty  (I  don't  know  whether  he 
is  or  not),  he  should  be  punished." 

If  a  supposition  or  condition  is  looked  upon  by  the  speaker 
as  untrue,  unlikely,  or  doubtful,  the  verb  should  be  in  the 
subjunctive  mode;  as,  "If  father  were  here  (he  is  not),  he  would 
enjoy  this;"  "If  the  weather  be  clear  to-morrow  (I  am  not 
sure  that  it  will  be),  we  shall  go." 

We  need  to  distinguish  between  general  and  particular 
conditions.  When  "if"  is  equivalent  to  "whenever,"  the  con- 
dition is  said  to  be  general;  as,  "If  (whenever)  it  snows,  we  go 
sleighing."  General  conditions  have  their  verbs  in  the  in- 
dicative mode. 

Particular  conditions  are  usually  expressed  in  the  sub- 
junctive mode;  as,  "  If  it  snow,  we  shall  not  go. " 

When  "if"  is  omitted,  the  verb  stands  before  the  subject; 
as  J  "  Were  he  here.  I  should  be  pleased. " 


INFLECTION   OF  VERBS  189 

When  the  truth  of  a  condition  is  doubtful,  the  verb  should 
be  in  the  present  or  present  perfect  tense  subjunctive  mode; 
as,  "If  he  be  here  (we  doubt  that  he  is)  we  shall  see  him." 
"If  he  have  been  here  (we  doubt  that  he  has)  we  regret  it.'' 

When  the  supposition  was  untrue  in  the  past,  the  past 
perfect  subjunctive  should  be  used;  as,  "If  he  had  been  there 
(he  was  not),  he  would  not  have  done  so.  '* 

A  comparison  of  the  indicative  forms  wdth  the  subjunctive 
forms  will  show  that,  wdth  the  exception  of  the  verb  *'be/'  the 
forms  of  the  subjunctive,  active  and  passive,  are  like  those  of 
the  indicative  except  in  the  third  person  singular  in  the  present 
and  present  perfect  tenses. 

THE   SUBJUNCTIVE   OF  DESIRE,    WISH,    OR   PURPOSE 

Wishes  are  expressed  in  the  subjunctive  mode;  as,  "I  wish 
my  mother  were  here. " 

To  express  a  wish  that  may  be  fulfilled,  the  present  tense 
subjunctive  should  be  used;  as,  "God  help  you,"  "Peace  be 
with  us." 

The  sentence,  "He  studies  that  he  may  be  wise/'  expresses 
a  desire  in  the  form  of  a  purpose  and  the  verb  "may  be"  is  in 
the  subjunctive  mode. 

Anything  that  is  desired  must  necessarily  be  regarded  as 
a  non-actuality  at  the  time  the  desire  is  expressed ;  consequent^, 
the  verb  expressing  the  desire  must  be  in  the  subjunctive  mode. 

Some  authorities  would  say  "may  be,"  in  the  sentence 
just  given,  is  in  the  potential  mode.  We  shall  consider  this 
matter  more  fully  under  subjunctive  of  possibility  which 
follows. 

EXERCISE   50 

Indicate  the  form  of  the  verb  that  should  be  used  in  each 
of  the  following  sentences,  by  writing  the  number  of  the  sentence 
and  the  word,  and  give  reason. 

1.  If  he  (were,  was)  kind  to  them,  they  would  not  be  un- 
happy. 


190  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

2.  If  I  (be,  am)  in  the  wrong,  I  will  confess  it. 

3.  Though  he  (swear,  swears)  it,  they  will  not  believe  him. 

4.  If  thine  enemy  (hunger,  hungers)  feed  him. 

5.  Though  he  (be,  is)  dead,  we  shall  find  him. 

6.  Even  if  he  (fail,  fails)  he  will  not  despair. 

7.  If  he  (was,  were)  willing,  I  would  help  him. 

8.  If  he  (was,  were)  severe,  he  was  not  unjust. 

9.  If  the  truth  (is,  be)  known,  no  harm  can  result. 

10.  Though  she  (was,  were)  there,  I  did  not  see  her. 

11.  If  it  (be,  is)  fair,  we  shall  go. 

12.  Though  he  (slay,  slays)  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him. 

13.  If  he  (study,  studies),  he  will  improve. 

14.  You  speak  as  if  I  (was,  were)  your  slave. 

15.  (Was,  were)  I  to  speak,  I  (should,  would)  denounce  him. 

16.  If  I  (were,  was)  he,  would  you  do  it? 

17.  If  this  (was,  were)  true,  the  difficulty  would  vanish. 

18.  If  he  (was,  were)  there,  I  did  not  see  him. 

19.  Though  this  (seem,  seems)  improbable,  it  is  true. 

20.  If  my  friend  (is,  be)  in  town,  he  will  call  this  evening. 

21.  If  he  (is,  be)  guilty,  the  evidence  does  not  show  it. 

22.  If  I  (was,  were)  he,  I  would  do  differently. 

23.  If  to-morrow  (is,  be)  fine,  I  will  walk  with  you. 

24.  If  I  (was,  were)  manager,  it  should  not  be. 

25.  If  I  (be,  am)  poor,  I  am  honest. 

26.  Suppose  Canada  (was,  were)  annexed  to  the  United  States. 

27.  If  a  man  (is,  be)  happy,  he  need  not  try  to  prove  it. 

28.  If  I  (was,  were)  you,  I  would  buy  that  book. 

29.  If  my  mother  (was,  were)  here,  I  should  be  happy. 

30.  If  your  father  (was,  were)  here,  you  would  not  do  that. 

31.  If  your  brother  (come,  comes)  let  me  know. 

32.  If  it  (rain,  rains)  to-morrow,  I  can  not  go. 

33.  Though  he  (was,  were)  honest,  he  was  poor. 

34.  If  I  (was,  were)  he,  I  would  go. 

35.  If  it  (rains,  rain)  the  work  is  delayed. 

36.  If  he  (return,  returns),  give  him  the  book. 

37.  He  cannot  enter  unless  he  (pay,  paj^s). 

38.  (Was,  were)  he  to  show  me  the  proof,  I  would  not  believe 

him. 
39    If  this  (be,  is)  all,  let  us  go. 

40.  (Was,  were)  he  to  go,  I  could  not  go  with  him. 

41.  If  he  (suspect,  suspects)  the  man,  he  should  not  employ  him. 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS  191 

42.  I  wish  I  (was,  were)  well. 

43.  I  wish  my  father  (was,  were)  here. 

44.  She  said  she  washed  she  (was,  were)  an  angeh 

45.  I  wish  I  (was,  were)  in  Paris. 

43.  Govern  well  thy  appetite,  lest  sin  (surprise,  surprises)  thee. 
47.  I  wish  it  (was,  were)  in  my  power  to  help  you. 
4S.  I  wish  I  (was,  were)  in  his  place. 

49.  Help  him  lest  he  (die,  dies). 

50.  Beware  that  he  (bring,  brings)  his  book. 

51.  See  that  he  (tell,  tells)  no  man. 

52.  I  would  he  (was,  were)  here. 

53.  I  w^ould  that  I  (was,  w^ere)  as  he. 

54.  Hurry  lest  we  (be,  are)  late. 

55.  Would  that  I  (was,  were)  there  to  help  him, 

56.  Take  heed  lest  you  (be,  are)  discouraged. 

57.  Oh!  how  I  wish  she  (was,  were)  here. 

58.  Suppose  he  (was,  were)  here,  what  could  he  do? 

59.  If  he  (oppresses,  oppress)  the  needy,  he  shall  not  live. 

60.  Even  if  I  (was,  were)  disposed,  I  could  not  satisfy  you. 

LESSON  51 
INFLECTION  OF  VERBS— Continued 
SUBJUNCTIVE    OF   POSSIBILITY   OR   POTENTIALITY 

Some  very  good  authorities  use  the  term,  'potential  mode, 
rather  than  the  term,  subjunctive  of  possibility^  or  some  other 
corresponding  expression,  in  connection  with  certain  auxiliaries 
which  we  shall  now  consider. 

If  thought  or  ineaning  is  the  basis  of  classification  in  mode, 
all  the  auxiliaries  that  are  classified  as  potential  mode  forms 
can  be  classified  as  indicative  or  subjunctive  forms. 

We  have  already  learned  that,  excepting  the  verb  ^'be, " 
the  forms  of  the  subjunctive  are  like  those  of  the  mdicative 
except  in  the  third  person  singular  number  in  the  present 
and  the  present  perfect  tenses. 

In  other  words,  mode  depends  more  upon  the  manner 
in  which  the  thought  expressed  by  the  verb  is  miderstood, 
than  it  does  upon  the  form  of  the  verb. 


192  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

''I  may  go"  suggests  the  idea  of  uncertainty;  consequently, 
"may  go"  is  in  the  suhjundive  mode. 

''May"  is  used  with  reference  to  the  present  or  the  past. 

In  the  sentence,  ''Father  says  I  may  go,''  *' may"  is  equiv- 
alent to  *'am  permitted"  and  ''may  go"  is  in  the  indicative 
mode. 

"Might"  follows  the  same  rule  as  "may"  and  is  used 
with  present  or  future  meaning;  as,  "  Oh,  that  it  77iight  be  true ! " 
''I  think  he  7night  do  the  work." 

"I  can  do  the  work,"  expresses  a  fact;  therefore,  the  verb 
"can  do"  is  in  the  indicative  mode. 

"He  could  do  the  work  easily,"  also  expresses  a  fact  and 
"could  do"  is  indicative. 

In  the  sentence,  "If  I  could  stand  the  pain,  I  would  have 
the  tooth  extracted,"  "could  stand"  expresses  a  condition, 
and  is,  therefore,  in  the  subjunctive  mode. 

When  used  to  express  a  future  condition,  "should"  and 
"  would  "  are  subjunctive]  as,  "  If  he  should  come,  he  will  see  me. " 

When  "should"  is  equivalent  to  "ought,"  it  is  indicative; 
as,  "You  should  study.''  "Would"  also  may  be  used  in  the 
indicative;  as,  "John  woidd  not  study." 

"Must"  and  "ought"  may  be  either  indicative  or  subjunc- 
tive; as,  "He  must  go"  (indicative);  "He  could  go  if  he 
must.'*  (subjunctive). 

The  person  who  classifies  "I  can  see"  in  the  potential 
mode,  but  "I  am  able  to  see"  in  the  indicative  mode,  is  guided 
not  by  meaning  but  by  form. 

We  repeat  that  mode  depends  on  meaning  rather  than  on 
form. 

Whether  we  use  the  potential  mode  or  not,  "may, "  "can, " 
and  "must,"  are  present;  "might,"  "could,"  "should,"  and 
"would,"  are  past;  "may  have,"  "can  have,"  "must  have," 
are  present  perfect;  "might  have, "  "could  have,"  "would  have," 
"should  have,"  are  past  perfect. 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS  193 

IMPERATIVE   MODE 

A  verb  may  be  used  to  express  a  command  or  that  which 
is  strongly  desired  by  the  speaker;  as,  "Promise  me  that  you 
will  study. '*  'SStudy  your  lesson. ''  "Promise'^  and  "study" 
are  said  to  be  in  the  iinjyerntive  mode. 

A  verb  that  exyresses  a  command  or  a  request  is  said  to  he 
in  the  imperative  mode. 

The  subject  of  a  verb  in  the  imperative  mode  is  "thou"  or 
"you,"  usually  not  expressed  but  understood. 

Since  a  command  is  always  given  in  the  present  tense, 
second  person,  the  imperative  form  of  the  verb  is  found  in  the 
present  tense,  second  person  only. 

EXERCISE    51 

Name  and  classify  the  modes  of  the  verbs  in  the  following 
sentences. 

1.  Bring  me  the  book  that  I  may  read  to  you. 

2.  I  rise  that  I  may  be  heard. 

S    He  feared  he  might  lose  the  way. 

4.  Had  I  your  chance,  I  would  go. 

5.  May  he  rest  in  peace. 

6.  Walk  carefully  lest  you  fall. 

7.  He  died  that  we  might  live. 

8.  John  would  not  go. 

9.  If  he  still  wishes  to  go,  he  may  go  with  me. 

10.  It  was  possible  that  he  might  be  right. 

11.  Had  he  followed  my  advice,  he  would  be  here. 

12.  This  unsettled  state  of  affairs  may  pass  away  in  time. 

1 3 .  Let  us  rest  that  we  may  be  ready  for  the  fray. 

14.  We  doubt  whether  it  can  be  done. 

15.  Honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother  that  thy  da^'S  may  be 

long  in  the  land. 

16.  If  I  should  go  abroad,  I  should  see  Paris. 

17.  If  this  should  be  said,  deny  it. 

18.  Oh,  that  I  might  see  Paris! 

19.  Speak  clearly,  if  you  speak  at  all. 

20.  If  you  suspect  a  man,  do  not  employ  him. 


194  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

21.  Should  you  desire  it,  I  will  remain. 

22.  Should  you  see  my  father,  give  him  my  message. 

23.  See  that  the  letter  be  written. 

24.  If  he  had  loved  her  before,  he  now  adored  her. 

25.  If  you  employ  a  man,  do  not  suspect  him. 

-       LESSON  52 
INFLECTION  OF  VERBS— Continued 

We  have  learned  that,  according  to  their  use,  verbs  are 
either  transitive  or  intransitive.  A  few  verbs,  however,  which 
are  always  transitive  and  a  few  which  are  always  intransitive 
are  sometimes  misused. 

Study  the  following  carefully : 

INTRANSITIVE    (hAVE   NO    OBJECT   COMPLEMENT) 

Lie  (reclining)  lay,  lain,  lying. 
Rise  (getting  up)  rose,  risen,  rising. 
Sit,  sat,  sat,  sitting. 
Awake,  awoke,  awaked. 

TRANSITIVE    (mUST   HAVE   AN   OBJECT   COMPLEMENT) 

Lay  (to  place)  laid,  laid,  laying. 
Raise  (to  lift)  raised,  raised,  raising. 
Set  (to  place)  set,  set,  setting. 

Set  is  sometimes  used  intransitively;  as,  ''The  sun  sets;" 
**He  set  out  for  Baltimore." 
Wake,  woke,  waked. 

EXERCISE   52 

Write  the  number  of  and  the  correct  word  for  each  of 
the  following  sentences. 

SIT,    SET 

1.  An  old  man  — ■ — ■  by  the  roadside. 

2.  .  down  and  tell  me  about  it. 

3.  He  has  • — •  there  all  the  morning. 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS  195 

4.  We  ■ ■ — — ■  by  the  window  and  watched  the  parade. 

5.  He  — ■ — - — ■ — •  out  for  Washington  yesterday. 

6.  Where  do  you  — — ■ — — -  ? 

7.  How  long  have  you —  there? 

8.  The  girls  were  — — ■ — ■ — -ing  by  the  brook. 

9.  We •  the  hen  yesterday. 

10.  The  hen  wants  to  ■ . 

11.  The  hen  has  ■ •  on  the  nest  a  week. 

12.  — •  the  table. 

13.  His  wife  was  • ing  the  table,  when  he  entered. 

14.  The  sun  — — ^ — —  in  the  west. 

15.  John  and  James  — — - — — -  together  in  school. 

16.  Have  you  ■ — •  here  long? 

17.  A  robin  — ■ — — —  on  the  tree  near  the  house. 

18.  We  ■ •  at  the  table  for  a  long  time. 

19.  The  poet  — — — —  in  his  study. 

20.  The  bird  is  • ing  on  her  eggs. 

21.  We  ■ "  on  the  veranda  and  saw  the  sun . 

22.  • •  the  basket  on  the  table. 

23.  The  basket  is  ■ ing  on  the  table. 

24.  They  are  — — - — —ing  poles  for  the  telephone  line. 

25.  ■ •  up  straight. 

26.  Come  into  the  • — •  room. 

27.  The  mother-bird  is  ~ •  in  her  nest. 

28.  We  — ■ — — —  out  twelve  elms  last  arbor-day. 

29.  Where  did  he  —  ? 

30.  I  — —        •  it  on  the  shelf,  and  there  it •  now. 

31.  Won't  you- -here? 

32.  He  ■ motionless  for  an  hour. 

33.  I  have  been  ■ •  in  the  arbor  while  you  have  been 

— -  out  your  plants. 

34.  The  court  will •  in  June. 

35.  Was  he  ■ ■ — ing  there  then? 

LIE,   LAY 

1.  The  traveler  told  me  to the  book  on  the  desk. 

2.  I •  the  book  on  the  desk. 

3.  The  doctor  told  me  to •  down  and  I down. 

4.  I  have  • ■  down  and  I  feel  better. 

5.  Has  the  man  — ■  there  long? 

6.  After  the  days'  work  is  over,  they down  to  rest. 


196  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

7.  John •  in  bed  too  late  in  the  morning. 

8.  The  cows  — —  under  the  tree  all  morning. 

9.  You  had  better  • —  do^\Ti  until  you  feel  better. 

10.  ■ •  the  paper  on  the  table. 

11.  You  did  not  — — — —  the  paper  on  the  table. 

12.  Have  you  — — — — ■  the  paper  on  the  table? 

13.  ''Now  I   — — — —  me  down  to  sleep." 

14.  John  — — down  an  hour  ago. 

15.  Has  James  — — - — —  down? 

16.  Tell  James  to — —  down. 

17.  A  tree  was ing  by  the  roadside. 

18.  The  snow ■  in  great  heaps  on  the  mountain  side, 

19.  He   told   the   men   to  • ■  the  stones   carefully. 

20.  They  ■ ■  the  stones  with  great  care. 

21.  The  men  were ing  rails  for  the  track. 

22.  After  they  had  been  ■ ing  silent  for  an  hour,  the 

command  was  given  to  march. 

23.  They  ran  so  far  they  had  to  — down  to  rest. 

24.  His  hat  was  — — - — - — ^ing  on  the  floor. 

25.  ■ •  your  hat  on  the  table. 

26.  Where  did  you ■  it? 

27.  How  long  has  it  ■ — - — • — — •  there? 

28.  At  what  wharf  does  your  yacht ? 

29.  It  ■ — •  on  the  grass  yesterday. 

30.  It  has  — — — —  there  for  years. 

31.  They  have  ■ ■  the  corner-stone. 

32.  He  — ■ — ■ — —  in  bed  till  nine  o'clock. 

33.  A  thousand  miles  of  pipe  have  been -. 


RISE,    RAISE 

1.  The  price  of  eggs  has  • . 

2.  The  river •  during  the  night. 

3.  A  cloud  is ing  in  the  west. 

4.  • •  the  window. 

5.  The  bread  would  not , 

6.  The  bread  has  ■ . 

7.  The    committee   has   ■ five    hundred    dollars. 

8.  I  fear  the  heavy  rain  will  cause  the  river  to  ■ . 

9.  I  — •  so  that  I  may  be  heard. 

10.  I •  so  that  I  might  see  better. 

11.  They — •  a  flag  during  the  night. 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS  197 

12.  The  sun in  the  east. 

13.  I  think  the  fog  will  ■ . 

14.  Great  clouds  of  dust  •  as  the  army  marched. 

15.  The  injured  man  could  not  ■ ■ . 

AWAKE,    WAKE 

1.  I —  when  the  bell  rang. 

2.  The  ringing  of  the  bell  ■ ■  me. 

3.  Have  you  — — — •  John? 

4.  I every  morning  early. 

5.  He  had  — •  before  I  called  him. 

6.  Christmas  morning  the  children  • — ■  at  five  o  'clock. 

7.  I  have  • — -  early  every  morning  this  week. 

8.  The  noise  of  the  wind  ■ •  me. 

9.  The  birds  — •  before  sunrise  and  — us  with 

their  singing. 

10.  Lord  Bja'on ■ one  morning  to  find  himself  famous. 

11.  The  noise  of  the  burglar them. 

12.  The  prisoner  ■ — many  times  during  the  night. 

13.  The  fog  whistle  — — — —  us. 

14.  You •  me  an  hour  too  soon. 

15.  ■  your  brother. 

LESSON  53 

INFLECTION  OF  VERBS— Continued 
VOICE 

In  the  sentence,  ''I  see  the  boy, '^  ''I,'*  the  subject  of  the 
sentence,  represents  the  agent  or  the  doer  of  the  act.  In 
the  sentence,  "The  boy  is  seen  by  me,"  "boy,"  the  subject 
of  the  sentence,  represents  the  receiver  of  the  act.  The  verb 
"see"  is  said  to  be  in  the  active  voice;  the  verb,  "is  seen,"  in 
the  passive  voice. 

//  the  form  of  the  verb  represents  the  subject  as  acting,  the  verb 
is  said  to  be  in  the  active  voice;  if  the  verb  represents  the  subject 
as  acted  upon,  the  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  passive  voice. 

That  inflection  of  a  transitive  verb  which  represents  the 
subject  as  acting  or  as  acted  upon  is  called  voice. 


198  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

The  passive  voice  form  of  the  verb  is  obtained  by  using 
some  form  of  the  verb  *'be"  as  an  auxihary  and  the  past 
participle  of  the  principal  verb;  as,  "I  am  seen/'  "you  are 
seen,"  ''he  is  seen." 

Any  form  of  the  verb  ''be"  used  as  an  auxihary  and  the 
past  participle  of  a  transitive  verb  used  as  a  principal  verb 
give  the  passive  voice  form  of  the  verb. 

The  tense,  mode,  and  number  of  a  verb  in  the  passive 
voice  are  shown  by  the  form  of  the  verb  ''be"  that  is  used  as 
an  auxiliary. 

If  we  compare  the  sentences,  *'I  see  the  boy"  and  ''The 
boy  is  seen  by  me, "  we  shall  see  that  in  changing  from  the  ac- 
tive to  the  passive  voice,  the  following  changes  take  place : 

1.  The  verb  changes  to  the  passive  form  (is  seen). 

2.  The  subject  "I"  of  the  active  becomes  the  object 
"me"  of  the  preposition  "by"  in  the  passive,  but  it  still  names 
the  agent  or  the  doer  of  the  act. 

3.  The  object "  boy  "  of  the  active  becomes  the  grammatical 
subject  "boy "in  the  passive, but  it  still  names  the  receiver  of 
the  action  expressed  by  the  verb;  and  consequently,  it  is  still 
the  object  of  the  verb. 

The  changes  just  given  characterize  what  is  known  as  the 
first  regular  passive  construction. 

Since  the  grammatical  subject  of  a  verb  in  the  passive  voice 
names  the  receiver  of  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb  and  is, 
therefore,  the  object  of  the  verb,  it  follows  that  only  transitive 
verbs  have  voice. 

In  poetry,  intransitive  verbs  are  sometimes  given  passive 
voice  form  by  using  the  present  tense  instead  of  the  present 
perfect;  as,  "Winter  is  come"  instead  of  "Winter  has  come." 

To  determine  whether  an  expression  having  the  passive 
voice  form  really  is  a  verb  in  the  passive  voice,  apply  the  fol- 
lowing tests : 

1.  Does  the  subject  of  the  verb  name  the  receiver  of  the 
action? 


INFLECTION  OP  VERBS  199 

2.  Is  the  meaning  expressed  when  the  passive  form  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  preposition  ''by"  and  the  agent? 

3.  Is  the  word  that  seems  to  be  the  past  participle  of  a 
transitive  verb  really  an  adjective  used  as  a  subjective  com- 
plement? 

In  the  sentence,  "They  elected  him  principal,"  "principal" 
is  an  objective  complement.  The  corresponding  passive  is, 
"  He  was  elected  principal  by  them. " 

In  changing  to  the  passive,  the  verb  takes  the  passive  form 
(was  elected);  the  subject  "they"  of  the  active  becomes  the 
agent  "them"  after  "by;"  the  object  "him"  of  the  active 
becomes  the  grammatical  subject  "he"  of  the  passive;  the 
objective  complement  "principal"  becomes  the  subjective 
complement. 

The  changes  just  given  constitute  the  second  regular  pas- 
sive construction. 

There  are  certain  passive  constructions  that  do  not  conform 
to  the  changes  just  explained;  but  these  constructions  are  used 
by  good  writers  and  good  speakers  and  are,  therefore,  permis- 
sible; they  are  idioms. 

In  the  sentence,  "The  teacher  asked  the  students  many 
questions,"  "students"  is  the  indirect  object  and  "questions" 
is  the  direct  object. 

Good  usage  permits  "The  students  were  asked  many 
questions  by  the  teacher."     The  irregularities  are: 

1.  The  subject  "students"  does  not  name  the  receiver  of 
the  action. 

2.  A  verb  in  the  passive  voice  has  an  object  complement 
"questions." 

When  the  indirect  object  of  the  active  becomes  the  subject 
of  the  passive  and  the  direct  object  is  retained,  the  object  is 
called  the  retained  object. 

The  irregularities  just  given  constitute  the  first  idiomatic 
passive  construction. 


200  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

The  sentence,   *'Ten  miles  was  run  in  an  hour/'  is  con- 
sidered correct;  it  is,  however,  an  idiom. 
The  irregularities  are: 

1.  The  subject  "miles"  does  not  name  the  receiver  of  the 
action. 

2.  An  intransitive  verb  is  given  passive  voice  form  to  which 
there  is  no  corresponding  active. 

This  construction  may  be  called  the  second  idiomatic  pas- 
sive construction. 

The  sentence,  ''The  teacher  sent  for  the  student,"  has  no 
corresponding  regular  passive.  It  does  have,  however,  an 
idiomatic  passive.  We  may  say  ''The  student  was  sent  for." 
This  may  be  called  the  third  idiomatic  passive  construction. 
The  irregularities  are: 

1.  An  intransitive  verb  is  given  passive  voice  form. 

2.  The  passive  has  no  corresponding  active. 

3.  An  inseparable  adverb  is  used  to  give  a  transitive  mean- 
ing to  the  passive  form. 

EXERCISE   53 

Rewrite  the  following  sentences  changing  the  verbs  to  the 
passive  voice.  Do  not  change  the  tense.  Explain  the  idiomatic 
passives. 

1.  We  saw  the  mountains  in  the  distance. 

2.  The  teacher  raised  the  American  flag. 

3.  We  told  our  friends  of  our  arrival. 

4.  The  guide  knew  the  way  across  the  mountains. 

5.  The  boy  broke  the  window\ 

6.  James  entered  the  house. 

7.  Miss  Jones  teaches  German. 

8.  Miss  Jones  taught  us  German. 

9.  John  wrote  this  composition. 

10.  WilHam  Penn  founded  Philadelphia. 

11.  The  student  laid  the  book  on  the  desk. 

12.  The  wind  blew  many  trees  down. 

13.  The  students  gave  the  teacher  a  present. 

14.  The  horse  drew  the  wagon. 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS  201 

15.  The  dog  bit  the  cat. 

16.  We  saw  many  birds  this  morning. 

17.  Time  conquers  all. 

18.  President  Wilson  appointed  Dr.   Van   Dyke   Minister   to 

Holland. 

19.  He  named  his  dog  Trix. 

20.  Father  gave  me  a  new  hat. 

21.  The  child  ate  bread  and  miilk. 

22.  We  call  the  undue  exercise  of  authority  tyranny. 

23.  He  told  me  the  story  of  Jack  and  the  Beanstalk. 

24.  They  elected  John  president  of  the  class. 

25.  W^e  laughed  at  the  teacher. 

26.  They  sent  for  the  doctor. 

27.  We  walked  twenty  miles  yesterday. 

28.  The  man  fell  fifty  feet. 

29.  They  stand  the  chairs  in  a  row  against  the  wall. 

30.  The  man  believes  everything  you  say. 

Write  the  following  sentences  so  that  the  intransitive 
verbs  will  be  in  the  present  perfect  tense  and  the  transitive 
verbs  will  be  in  the  passive  voice,  same  tense  as  the  active 

1.  Mr.  Smith  bids  fifty  dollars  for  the  table. 

2.  The  teacher  bids  us  good  morning. 

3.  The  leaves  begin  to  fall. 

4.  The  dog  bites  the  cat. 

5.  The  wind  blows  furiously, 

6.  John  breaks  the  window. 

7.  Henry  buys  a  pencil. 

8.  The  cat  catches  a  mouse. 

9.  I  choose  this  book. 

10.  I  do  the  work  easily. 

11.  The  child  draws  a  picture  in  his  book. 

12.  The  kittens  drink  the  milk. 

13.  The  man  drives  the  horse. 

14.  The  boys  eat  their  dinner. 

15.  The  cold  freezes  the  orange  trees. 

16.  The  father  forsakes  his  child. 

17.  The  birds  fly  southward. 

18.  He  flees  at  the  sight  of  the  accident. 

19.  The  apple  falls  from  the  tree. 

20.  lie  gives  me  a  book. 


202  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

21.  John  goes  to  town. 

22.  Flowers  grow  by  the  cottage. 

23.  The  dog  hides  the  bone. 

24.  John  lends  his  knife  to  me. 

25.  The  book  lies  on  the  table. 

26.  William  mows  the  grass  in  the  meadow. 

27.  The  teacher  rings  the  bell. 

28.  James  rides  the  pony. 

29.  The  horse  runs  away. 

30.  The  river  rises. 

31.  The  wind  shakes  the  trees. 

32.  The  sun  shines. 

33.  This  man  shoes  my  horse. 

34.  Mary  shows  me  the  book. 

35.  The  vessel  sinks. 

36.  She  sings  sweetly. 

37.  We  sit  with  our  friends. 

38.  Savages  slay  their  prisoners. 

39.  He  speaks  well. 

40.  The  tiger  springs  on  the  man. 

41.  The  boy  strikes  the  ball. 

42.  The  man  swears  that  it  is  true. 

43.  The  boy  swims  to  the  shore. 

44.  He  takes  the  book. 

45.  He  throws  the  ball  to  first  base. 

46.  The  philosopher  thinks  much. 

47.  He  wears  a  brown  hat. 

48.  The  birds  awake  early. 

49.  Silas  weaves  carpet. 

50.  He  wins  the  prize. 

51.  He  writes  a  good  story. 

LESSON  54 
INFLECTION  OF  VERBS— Continued 

INFINITIVES   AND    PARTICIPLES 

We  have  learned  that  a  verb  which  is  used  as  the  predicate 
of  a  sentence  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  number  and  person. 
Because  predicate  verbs  are  so  limited  by  their  subjects,  they  are 
said  to  be  finite. 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS  203 

There  are  two  classes  of  words,  which  are  forms  of  the  verb, 
that  do  not  have  all  the  limitations  of  agreement  of  the  finite 
forms.     One  class,  we  call  the  infinitive',  the  other,  the  participle. 

THE    INFINITIVE 

The  form  of  the  verb  which  is  not  limited  by  its  subject  in 
number  and  person  and  names  an  action  or  state  without  assert- 
ing it  of  the  subject^  is  called  the  infinitive  for7n  of  the  verb.  The 
infinitive  form  of  the  verb  is  frequently  used  without  a  subject. 

A  verb  has  three  infinitive  forms;  the  present  infinitive  of 
the  verb  "see'^  is  ''  to  see; "  the  perfect  infinitive,  "  to  have  seen; " 
and  the  infinitive  in  "ing"  also  called  the  gerund,  *' seeing. " 
The  gerund  is  used  as  a  noun  only. 

Transitive  verbs  have  infinitive  forms  in  the  passive  voice ; 
the  present,   *'to  be  seen;'*  perfect  ^'to  have  been  seen." 

The  gerund  has  two  forms  in  each  voice,  the  present,  and 
the  perfect. 

Present  Perfect 

Active  voice      seeing  having  seen 

Passive  voice    being  seen  having  been  seen 

In  old  English,  *'to"  was  used  before  the  present  infinitive 
with  a  real  prepositional  value,  meaning  "for  the  purpose  of," 
''in  order  to;"  as,  *'Breadisgood  to  eat." 

At  the  present,  *'to"  is  not  a  part  of  the  infinitive;  but  we 
frequently  use  it  as  a  sign  of  the  infinitive  to  point  out  that 
the  word  following  is  an  infinitive.  The  sign,  however,  is  omitted 
BO  frequently  that  we  must  learn  to  recognize  the  infinitive  by 
its  use. 

"To"  is  frequently  omitted  when  the  infinitive  follows 
may,  can,  must,  might,  w^ould,  could,  should,  bid,  feel,  hear,  need, 
dare,  help,  please,  observe,  make,  see  and  a  few  other  verbs;  as, 
I  may  go;  He  might  go;  He  dared  not  leave;  Please  read  to  me. 

Although  the  infinitive  may  be  used  in  the  sentence  as 


204  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

some  of  the  parts  of  speech,  the  infinitive  is  not  considered  a 
part  of  speech. 

USES    OF   THE    INFINITIVE 

The  infinitive  may  have  the  following  uses  of  the  noun: 

1.  As  the  subject  of  a  sentence;  as,  To  teach  lazy  pupils  is  a 
difficult  task. 

2.  As  an  object  complement;  as,  He  tries  to  learn. 

3.  As  a  subjective  complement;  as,  To  labor  is  to  pray. 

4.  As  an  objective  complement;  as,  The  teacher  com- 
pelled the  student  to  study. 

5.  As  an  appositive;  as.  The  opportunity,  to  attend  school, 
is  not  enjoyed  by  all. 

An  expression  used  to  explain  a  preceding  noun  or  pronoun 
by  giving  another  name  for  the  same  thing,  is  an  appositive. 

6.  As  the  object  of  a  preposition;  as,  I  have  no  choice  but 
to  go. 

The  infinitive  with  the  preposition  ''to  "  used  as  a  noun, 
is  called  the  infinitive  phrase. 

The  best  writers  do  not  place  an  adverb  between  *'to" 
and  the  infinitive;  as,  ''He  promised  to  earnestly  try  to  do 
better. "     *'  He  promised  to  try  earnestly  to  do  better  "  is  correct. 

The  infinitive  with  its  subject  may  be  used  as  the  subject 
of  a  sentence  introduced  by  "for; '^  as,  "For  him  to  do  so  is 
not  right. "  This  use  of  the  infinitive  is  really  an  idiom  of  our 
language. 

The  infinitive  may  be  used  as  an  adjective;  as,  "The  at- 
tempt to  cheat  failed;"  "I  have  a  book  to  sell;'^  "He  has 
work  to  do.'' 

The  infinitive  may  be  used  as  an  adverb. 

There  are  two  classes  of  adverbial  infinitives;  the  infinitive 
of  purpose;  and  the  complementary  infinitive. 

The  infinitive  of  purpose  is  equivalent  to  the  subjimctive 
clause  of  purpose;  as,  "He  studies  to  succeed"  means  "He  stud- 
ies that  he  may  succeed. " 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS  205 

The  complementary  infinitive  is  used  as  a  part  of  the  vert); 
as,  I  am  compelled  to  study. 

We  must  be  particularly  careful  when  the  complementary 
infinitive  is  used  with  the  so-called  potential  forms.  *'I  can 
see  "  is  equivalent  to  *'  I  am  able  to  see.  '^  ''  I  could  see  "  means 
"I  was  able  to  see."      In  each  sentence  "see''  is  an  infinitive. 

When  *'may"  suggests  mere  possibility;  as,  I  may  go, 
(I  am  not  sure),  it  is  an  auxiliary.  When  ''may"  expresses 
permission;  as,  '^ Father  says  I  may  go"  (Father  says  I  am  per- 
mitted to  go),  it  is  used  as  a  separate  verb  and  ''go"  is  an  in- 
finitive. 

May,  might,  would,  and  should  may  be  used  as  auxiliaries 
or  as  separate  verbs  with  the  complementary  infinitive. 

"Will"  may  be  used  as  a  part  of  the  future  tense  of  a  verb 
or  as  a  verb  expressing  determination  in  the  present;  as,  "I 
will  see"  meaning  " I  am  determined  to  see. "  Whatever  mode 
form  the  verb  may  have,  in  uses  similar  to  the  ones  just  given, 
we  have  the  complementary  infinitive. 

The  infinitive  may  be  used  independently;  as,  "To  tell 
the  truth,  John  does  not  stud^^" 

The  verb  nature  of  the  infinitive  is  seen  in  its  derivation 
(it  is  a  form  of  the  verb)  and  in  the  fact,  that  it  may  be  modified 
by  any  adverb;  as,  "  To  study  diligently  is  necessary  for  success. " 
The  verb  nature  is  also  seen  in  the  fact,  that  the  infinitive  form 
of  a  transitive  verb  takes  an  object  complement;  as,  "To  study 
Greek  is  difficult."  The  noun,  adjective,  and  adverb  nature  of 
the  infinitive  is  seen  in  its  use. 

EXERCISE  54 

In  the  following  sentences,  name  and  classify  the  infinitives 
and  tell  how  each  is  used. 

1.  Mother  gave  us  a  book  to  read. 

2.  I  should  like  to  ride  the  horse. 

3.  We  have  plenty  of  coal  to  burn. 

4.  The  girl  tried  to  sing. 


206  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES   IN   ENGLISH 

5.  To  see  is  to  believe. 

6.  To  tell  the  truth,  he  is  lazy. 

7.  The  sign,  boats  to  let,  was  blown  down. 

8.  The  farmer  has  hay  to  sell. 

9.  Give  me  a  picture  to  admire. 

10.  The  apples  are  hard  to  sell. 

11.  He  appears  to  be  ill. 

12.  Try  to  succeed. 

13.  He  is  ready  to  run. 

14.  I  hope  to  hear  from  you. 

15.  They  were  delighted  to  see  me. 

16.  The  judge  began  to  charge  the  jury. 

17.  We  could  not  hear  you  talk. 

18.  I  cannot  make  the  top  spin. 

19.  I  dare  do  it. 

20.  Let  him  go. 

21.  Both  horses  seemed  to  fall  at  the  same  time. 

22.  Bid  him  take  the  money. 

23.  I  felt  something  touch  me. 

24.  Let  him  die. 

25.  You  must  study  diligently  to  succeed. 

26.  Let  him  go. 

27.  You  must  go  to-day. 

28.  Help  me  lift  this  box. 

29.  I  felt  the  branch  touch  my  cheek. 

30.  Tell  her  to  come  to  class. 
31.1  like  to  watch  the  birds. 

32.  We  heard  you  sing. 

33.  We  saw  the  men  pass  down  the  street. 

34.  He  sprang  to  defend  the  child. 

35.  She  believes  him  to  be  the  thief. 

36.  It  is  not  easy  to  understand  this. 

37.  Once  to  every  man  and  nation  comes  the  moment  to  decide. 

38.  I  tried  to  reach  the  station  on  time. 

39.  Mary  began  to  sing  a  song. 

40.  We  have  plenty  of  coal  to  burn. 

41.  Father  gave  us  a  book  to  read. 

42.  Mr.  Smith  has  a  house  to  sell. 

43.  I  am  grieved  to  see  this. 

44.  I  am  ready  to  go. 

45.  This  is  easy  to  do. 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS  207 

4G.  We  came  to  see  you. 

47.  I  should  like  a  book  to  read. 

48.  You  ought  to  be  careful. 

49.  John  should  be  careful. 

50.  I  enjoy  reading  this  book. 

51.  Walking  in  the  open  air  is  heathful  exercise. 

52.  We  spend  much  money  in  building  ships. 

53.  Seeing  is  nob  always  beheving. 

54.  We  enjoy  travelling  by  rail. 

55.  Reading  good  books  promotes  knowledge. 

56.  Running  a  locomotive  is  dangerous  work. 

57.  Avoid  eating  too  fast. 

58.  We  grow  tired  of  doing  nothing. 

59.  Young  persons  are  corrupted  by  reading  bad  books. 

60.  Walking  rapidly  is  good  exercise. 

LESSON  55 

INFLECTION  OF  VERBS— Continued 

USES    OF   THE    PRESENT   AND    THE    PERFECT   INFINITIVES 

Care  should  be  had  in  using  the  present  and  the  perfect 
infinitive.  The  present  infinitive  should  be  used  to  denote 
action  which  is  incomplete  at  the  time  denoted  by  the  principal 
verb;  as,  ''I  hope  to  see  him.''  The  perfect  infinitive  should 
be  used  to  denote  action  w^hich  is  completed  at  the  time  denoted 
by  the  principal  verb;  as,  *'I  am  glad  to  have  seen  him." 

The  verb  *'ought"  and  the  verbs  ''must/'  ''need,"  and 
''  should, "  when  used  in  the  sense  of  *'  ought, "  have  no  change  of 
form  to  denote  past  time.  We  denote  present  time  with  these 
verbs  by  using  the  present  infinitive;  as,  ''You  ought  to  study. " 
Past  time  is  denoted  by  using  the  perfect  infinitive;  as,  "He 
ought  to  have  studied. "  We  have  a  similar  use  of  the  present 
and  the  past  infinitive  after  "could"  and  "might"  in  some  of 
their  meanings;  as,  " I  could  stud3^ "     "I  could  have  studied.  " 

Punctuation.— The  infinitive  phrase,  when  used  independ- 
ently, when  used  as  an  appositive,  or  when  out  of  its  natural 


208  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

position,  should  be  marked  off  by  the  comma;  as,  *'To  speak 
plainly,  I  do  not  believe  you;"  ''The  task,  to  teach  diligent 
students,  is  delightful." 

EXERCISE  55 

In  each  of  the  following  sentences,  use  either  the  present 
or  the  perfect  infinitive,  and  explain  why. 

1.  He  feels  himself  (to  be,  to  have  been)  in  the  way. 

2.  I  should  like  (to  go,  to  have  gone)  yesterday. 

3.  I  should  have  hked  (to  go,  to  have  gone)  yesterday. 

4.  I  intended  (to  go,  to  have  gone)  yesterday. 

5.  I  meant  (to  write,  to  have  written)  yesterday. 

6.  He  was  supposed  (to  build,  to  have  built)  the  house. 

7.  Your  father  is  pleased  (to  hear,  to  have  heard)  of  your  success. 

8.  Will  you  be  willing  (to  go,  to  have  gone)? 

9.  Would  he  have  been  willing  (to  go,  to  have  gone)? 

10.  It  was  your  duty  (to  prevent,  to  have  prevented)  this. 

11.  It  would  have  been  impossible  (to  escape,  to  have  escaped) 

the  punishment. 

12.  It  was  more  difficult  than  I  thought  it  would  (be,  have 

been). 

13.  When  I  reached  home,  I  intended  (to  lie,  to  have  lain)  down. 

14.  He  did  no  more  than  it  was  his  duty  (to  do,  to  have  done) . 

15.  He  expected  (to  meet,  to  have  met)  you  to-morrow. 

16.  We  expected  (to  win,  to  have  won)  the  game. 

17.  It  would  have  pleased  me  (to  see,  to  have  seen)  you. 

18.  It  would  have  been  wiser  (to  go,  to  have  gone). 

19.  I  should  like  (to  have  heard,  to  hear)  from  you. 

20.  The  house  was  (to  be,  to  have  been)  sold. 

Write  at  least  five  sentences  illustrating  each  of  the  different 
uses  of  the  infinitive  in  the  sentence. 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS  209 

LESSON  56 

INFLECTION  OF  VERBS— Continued 

THE   PARTICIPLE 

The  form  of  the  verl)  which  is  used  as  an  adjective  is  called 
the  participle;  as,  Working  all  day,  I  finished  in  time. 

Every  verb  has  three  participles;  the  present  participle  of 
the  verb  *'see"  is,  ''seeing;"  the  past  participle,  "seen;"  the 
perfect  participle  ''having  seen." 

Transitive  verbs  have  participles  in  the  passive  voice  also; 
the  present '' being  seen; "  the  past, ''  seen; "  the  perfect,  ''having 
been  seen." 

As  the  definition  suggests,  the  uses  of  the  participle  in  the 
sentence  are  limited  to  those  of  the  adjective:  These  uses  are 
as  follows: 

1.  Subjective  complement;  as,  We  sat  imtching  the  game. 

2.  Objective  complement;  as,  We  saw  the  horse  running 
away. 

3.  Common  use  of  the  adjective;  as,  Having  worked  so  hard, 
he  is  entitled  to  a  vacation. 

A  participle  with  its  assumed  subject  used  independently 
is  called  the  nominative  absolute  construction;  as,  The  child 
being  ill,  they  sent  for  the  doctor. 

The  assumed  subject  is  that  about  which  an  infinitive  or 
a  participle  assumes  its  action,  being  or  condition. 

The  participle  may  also  be  used  independently  without 
its  assumed  subject;  as,  considering  his  advantages,  he  is  well 
educated. 

To  distinguish  this  construction  from  the  nominative 
absolute,  we  call  it  the  independent  participial  phrase. 

The  participle  may  be  used  as  an  adjective  more  loosely 
attached  to  the  noun  than  ordinarily;  as.  The  enemy,  beaten,  fled. 

We  see  the  verb  nature  of  the  participle  in  its  derivation 
and  in  the  fact,  that  it  may  be  modified  with  an  adverb;  as, 


210  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

Running  rapidly  down  the  steps,  the  child  fell.     The  adjective 
nature  of  the  participle  is  seen  in  its  uses. 

Punctuation.— When  the  participle  is  used  independently 
or  when  it  is  used  as  an  adjective  modifier,  the  participle  with  the 
words  belonging  to  it,  should  be  set  off  by  the  comma  unless 
restrictive  in  meaning;  as,  *'The  man  being  ill,  they  sent  for 
the  doctor;'^  *'The  spinal  cord,  proceeding  from  the  brain, 
extends  downward  through  the  back  bone.  " 

EXERCISE  56 

In  the  following  sentences,  name  and  classify  the  participles 
and  tell  how  each  is  used. 

1.  Having  told  the  story,  Mr.  Jones  departed. 

2.  He  saw  a  dog  eating  a  bone. 

3.  He  kept  us  waiting  an  hour. 

4.  Having  failed  to  prove  his  innocence,  he  was  sent  to  jail. 

5.  My  health  permitting,  I  shall  go. 

6.  Vessels  carrying  lumber  are  constantly  arriving. 

7.  Lifting  the  injured  man,  John  carried  him  into  the  house. 

8.  The  gun  being  fired,  they  ran  away. 

9.  Happiness,  shared,  is  perfect. 

10.  The  fleet,  shattered  and  disabled,  returned  to  Spain. 

11.  Our  boats  being  lost,  we  were  in  danger  of  drowning. 

12.  Edward  dying  without  heirs,  Harold  was  crowned. 

13.  Attempting  to  cross  the  street,  the  boy  was  hurt. 

14.  The  sky  being  overcast,  the  fishing  was  excellent. 

15.  The  philosopher  sat  buried  in  thought. 

16.  We  saw  the  train  moving  away. 

17.  The  workman,  spent  with  fatigue,  fell  into  a  deep  sleep. 

18.  Driven  by  the  gale,  the  vessel  was  dashed  against  the  rocks. 

19.  Having  led  his  soldiers  over  the  Alps,  Hannibal  entered  Italy. 

20.  I  saw  the  man  entering  the  house. 

21.  I  saw  the  flowers  dancing  in  the  breeze. 

22.  Standing  in  the  doorway,  we  saw  the  parade. 

23.  War  having  been  declared,  the  fleet  departed. 

24.  The  book,  having  been  found,  was  given  to  the  owner. 

25.  Having  seen  the  play,  we  returned  home. 

26.  Having  mended  the  machine,  we  droA^e  on. 

27.  The  machine  having  been  mended,  we  drove  on. 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS  •  211 

28.  Their  captain  dying,  the  soldiers  dispersed. 

29.  Their  captain  being  killed,  the  soldiers  dispersed. 

30.  This  work  having  been  done,  the  men  went  home. 

31.  The  child  having  died,  the  doctor  went  home. 

32.  Having  finished  my  lesson,  I  shall  go  with  you. 

33.  Dropping  the  bone,  the  dog  ran  home. 

34.  The  rope  tripping  the  man,  he  fell. 

35.  I  saw  him  being  hurt. 

Write  at  least  five  sentences,  illustrating  each  of  the  dif- 
ferent uses  of  the  participle  in  the  sentence. 

LESSON  57 
INFLECTION  OF  VERBS— Continued 
VERBAL  NOUNS 

There  are  three  classes  of  words  formed  from  verbs  by  the 
suffixing  of  "ing. " 

1.  The  participle.  In  the  sentence,  ''We  found  John 
studying  English,"  '' studying '^  is  used  as  an  adjective;  but  it 
has  the  verb  nature  in  its  derivation  and  in  its  being  followed 
with  a  direct  object  English.  '' Studying '^  is  a  participle. 

2.  The  gerund.  In  the  sentence,  ''Studying  English  in- 
creases one's  chances  for  promotion, "  "studying''  is  used  as  a 
noun;  it  also  partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  verb  in  derivation  and 
in  being  followed  with  a  direct  object  English.  "Studying"  is 
a  gerund,  or  the  infinitive  in  "ing. " 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  before  a  gerund  to  denote  the 
subject  of  the  action  should  be  in  the  possessive  case;  as,  "John's 
studying  English  pleased  his  father. " 

3.  The  abstract  verbal  noun.  In  the  sentence,  "A  diligent 
studying  of  the  classics  improves  one's  style,"  "studying" 
is  a  noun;  but  it  has  no  verbal  character.  "Studying"  is 
modified  by  an  adjective,  and  is  followed  by  a  prepositional 
phrase  instead  of  by  a  direct  object.  Studying  is  an  abstract 
verbal  noun. 


212  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

If  the  word  ending  in  ''ing"  is  modified  by  some  adjec- 
tive (generally  the),  it  is  an  abstract  verbal  noun  and  cannot 
have  a  direct  object.  If  the  abstract  verbal  noun  is  followed 
by  a  prepositional  phrase  introduced  by  *'of,"  it  should  be 
modified  by  some  adjective. 

An  abstract  verbal  noun  may  be  preceded  by  a  noun  or 
a  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case;  as,  ''John's  diligent  studying 
of  the  classics  improved  his  style." 

EXERCISE  57 

Tell  which  form  in  each  of  the  following  sentences  is  cor- 
rect and  give  the  reason. 

1.  Pardon  (my,  me)  asking  if  you  like  the  book. 

2.  The  (king,  king 's)  persisting  in  such  plans  was  the  height  of 

folly. 

3.  (You,  your)  coming  to  our  house  is  always  a  pleasure. 

4.  (My,  me)  speaking  to  the  boy  pleased  his  father. 

5.  (Him,  his)  going  back  so  soon  was  a  mistake. 

6.  Trust  to  (us,  our)  being  on  time. 

7.  We  saw  the  (man,  man's)  riding  the  horse. 

8.  We  saw  the  (woman,  woman's)  sitting  alone. 

9.  There  is  no  doubt  of  (his,  him)  being  guilty. 

10.  We  found  (him,  his)  studying  his  lesson. 

11.  (Him,  his)  getting  a  position  is  doubtful. 

12.  (Him,  his)  playing  ball  attracted  much  attention. 

13.  We  did  not  know  of  (his,  him)  going  away. 

14.  The  (robber,  robber's)  breaking  into  the  house  woke  me. 

15.  (You,  your)  writing  the  letter  was  appreciated. 

16.  (Him,  his),  being  elected  caused  great  excitement. 

17.  (Him,  his)  being  ill  caused  the  delay. 

18.  We  remember  (you,  your)  being  here  last  year. 

19.  There  is  no  doubt  of  (him,  his)  being  an  able  man. 

20.  The   trouble   ended   with   the    (student,  student's)    being 

expelled. 

21.  His  parents  are  opposed  to  (him,  his)  going  with  us. 

22.  The  (man,  man's)  winning  the  race  is  my  brother. 

23.  The  (man,  man's)  winning  the  race  delighted  me. 

24.  (We,  our)  missing  the  train  was  caused  by  you. 

25.  (You,  your)  being  so  young  was  the  cause  of  (you,  your)  not 

being  appointed. 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS  213 

LESSON  58 

INFLECTION  OF  VERBS— Continued 

Conjugation  of  the  Verb  "Be" 

indicative  mode 

Principal  parts:  Pres.,  be  or  am;  Past,  was;  Perf.  Part., 


been. 


Present  Tense 

Singular 

Plural 

I  am 

We  are 

You  are 

You  are 

He  is 

They  are 

Past 

Tense 

1  was 

We  were 

You  were 

You  were 

He  was 

They  were 

Future  Tense 
(Indicating  futurity) 

1  shall  be  We  shall  be 

You  will  be  You  will  be 

He  will  be  They  will  be 

Future  Tense 
(Indicating  promise,  determination,  etc.) 

I  will  be  We  will  be 

You  shall  be  You  shall  be 

He  shall  be  They  shall  be 

Present  Perfect  Tense 

I  have  been  We  have  been 

You  have  been  You  have  been 

He  has  been  They  have  been 


214 


LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 


Past  Perfect  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

I  had  been  We  had  been 

You  had  been  You  had  been 

He  had  been  They  had  been 

Future  Perfect  Tense 


I  shall  have  been 
You  will  have  been 
He  will  have  been 


We  shall  have  been 
You  will  have  been 
Thev  will  have  been 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MODE 

Present  Tense 


If,  though, 
If,  though, 
If,  though, 


If,  though. 
If,  though. 
If,  though. 


etc.,  I  be 
etc.,  you  be 
etc.,  he  be 


etc.,  we  be 
etc.,  you  be 


If,  though. 
If,  though. 
If,  though,  etc.,  they  be 


Past  Tense 


etc.,  I  were 
etc.,  you  were 
etc.,  he  were 


If,  though. 
If,  though, 
If,  though. 


etc.,  we  were 
etc.,  you  were 
etc.,  they  were 


Future  Tense 

If,  though,  etc.,  I  should  be  If,  though. 
If,  though,  etc.,  you  should  be  If,  though. 
If,  though,  etc.,  he  should  be     If,  though. 

Present  Perfect  Tense 


etc.,  we  should  be 
etc.,  you  should  be 
etc.,  they  should  be 


etc.,  I  have  been 
etc.,  you  have 


If,  though. 
If,  though, 

been 
If,  though,  etc.,  he  have 

been 


If,  though, 
If,  though, 


etc.,  we  have  been 
etc.,  you  have  been 


If,  though,  etc.,  they  have 
been 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS 


215 


Past  Perfect  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

If,  though,  etc.,  I  had  been  If,  though,  etc.,  we  had  been 

If,  though,  etc.,  you  had  been      If,  though,  etc.,  you  had  been 
If,  though,  etc.,  he  had  been        If,  though,  etc.,  they  had  been 

Future  Perfect  Tense 


If,  though,  etc.,   I  should 

have  been 
If,  though,  etc.,  you  should 

have  been 
If,  though,  etc.,  he  should 

have  been 


If,  though,  etc.,  we  should  have 

been 
If,  though,  etc.,  you  should  have 

been 
If,  though,  etc.,  they  should 

have  been 


IMPERATIVE   MODE 

Thou  or  you  be 

Infinitives 

Present 

Perfect 

To  be 

To  have  been 

Being 

Having  been 

Participles 

Present                                    Past 

Perfect 

Being                                    Been 

Having  been 

Conjugation  of  the  Verb  ''See" 

Active  Voice 

indicative  mode 

Present  Tense 

Singular 

Plural 

I  see 

We  see 

You  see 

You  see 

He  sees 

They  see 

216 


LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 


Past    Tense 

Singular 

Plural 

I  saw 

We  saw 

You  saw 

You  saw 

He  saw 

Future   Tense 

They  saw 

(Indicating  futurity) 

I  shall  see 

We  shall  see 

You  will  see 

You  will  see 

He  will  see 

They  will  see 

Future  Tense 
(Indicating  promise,  determination,  etc.) 


I  will  see 
You  shall  see 
He  shall  see 


We  will  see 
You  shall  see 
They  shall  see 


Present  Perfect  Tense 


I  have  seen 
You  have  seen 
He  has  seen 


We  have  seen 
You  have  seen 
They  have  seen 


Past  Perfect  Tense 


I  had  seen 
You  had  seen 
He  had  seen 


We  had  seen 
You  had  seen 
They  had  seen 


Future  Perfect  Tense 


I  shall  have  seen 
You  will  have  seen 
He  will  have  seen 


We  shall  have  seen 
You  will  have  seen 
They  will  have  seen 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS  217 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MODE 

Present  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

If,  though,  etc.,  I  see  If,  though,  etc.,  we  see 

If,  tliough,  etc.,  you  see  If,  though,  etc.,  you  see 

If,  though,  etc.,  he  see  If,  though,  etc.,  they  see 

Past    Tense 

If,  though,  etc.,  I  saw  If,  though,  etc.,  we  saw 

If,  though,  etc.,  you  saw  If,  though,  etc.,  you  saw 

If,  though,  etc.,  he  saw  If,  though,  etc.,  they  saw 

Future  Tense 

If,  though,  etc.,  I  should  see  If,  though,  etc.,  we  should 

see 
If,  though,  etc.  you  should  If,  though,  etc.,  you  should 

see  see 

If,  though,  etc.,  he  should  If,  though,  etc.,  they 

see  should  see 

Present  Perfect  Tense 

If,  though,  etc.,  I  have  seen  If,  though,  etc.,  we  have 

seen 
If,  though,  etc.,  you  have  If,  though,  etc.,  you  have 

seen  seen 

If,  though,  etc.,  he  have         .        If,  though,  etc.,  they  have 

seen  seen 

Past    Perfect    Tense 

If,  though,  etc.,  I  had  seen  If,  though,  etc.,  we  had 

seen 
If,  though,  etc.,  you  had  If,  though,  etc.,  you  had 

seen  seen 

If,  though,  etc.,  he  had  seen  If,  though,  etc.,  they  had 

seen 


218 


LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 


Future  Perfect  Tense 


Singular 

If,  though,  etc.,  I  should 

have  seen 
If,  though,  etc.,  you  should 

have  seen 
If,  though,  etc.,  he  should 

have  seen 


Plural 

If,  though,  etc.,  we  should 

have  seen 
If,  though,  etc.,  you  should 

have  seen 
If,  though,  etc.,  they  should 

have  seen 


IMPERATIVE   MODE 

Thou  or  you 

see 

Infinitives 

Present 

Perfect 

To  see 

To  have  seen 

Seeing 

Participles 

Having  seen 

Present 

Past 

Perfect 

Seeing 

Seen 

Having  seen 

Conjugation  of  the  Verb  ''See" 
Passive  Voice 
indicative  mode 
Principal  parts:  Pres.,  see;  Past,  saw;  Perf.  Part.,  seen. 

Present  Tense 


.     Singular 

I  am  seen 
You  are  seen 
He  is  seen 


Plural 

We  are  seen 
You  are  seen 
They  are  seen 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS  219 

Past  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

I  was  seen  We  were  seen 

You  were  seen  You  were  seen 

He  was  seen  They  were  seen 

Future  Tense 
(Indicating  futurity) 

I  shall  be  seen  We  shall  be  seen 

You  will  be  seen  You  will  be  seen 

He  will  be  seen  They  will  be  seen 

Future  Tense 
(Indicating  promise,  determination,  etc.) 

I  will  be  seen  We  will  be  seen 

You  shall  be  seen  You  shall  be  seen 

He  shall  be  seen  They  shall  be  seen 

Present  Perfect  Tense 

I  have  been  seen  We  have  been  seen 

You  have  been  seen  You  have  been  seen 

He  has  been  seen  They  have  been  seen 

Past  Perfect   Tense 

I  had  been  seen  We  had  been  seen 

You  had  been  seen  You  had  been  seen 

He  had  been  seen  They  had  been  seen 

Future  Perfect  Tense 

I  shall  have  been  seen  We  shall  have  been  seen 

You  will  have  been  seen  You  will  have  been  seen 

He  will  have  been  seen  They  will  have  been  seen 

(Indicating  promise,  determination,  etc.) 


220 


LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 


Singular 
If  I  be  seen 
If  you  be  seen 
If  he  be  seen 


If  I  were  seen 
If  you  were  seen 
If  he  were  seen 


If  I  should  be  seen 
If  you  should  be  seen 
If  he  should  be  seen 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MODE 

Present  Tense 

Plural 

If  we  be  seen 
If  you  be  seen 
If  they  be  seen 

Past    Tense 

If  we  were  seen 
If  you  were  seen 
If  they  were  seen 

Future  Tense 

If  we  should  be  seen 
If  you  should  be  seen 
If  they  should  be  seen 


Present  Perfect  Tense 


If  I  have  been  seen 
If  you  have  been  seen 
If  he  have  been  seen 


If  we  have  been  seen 
If  you  have  been  seen 
If  they  have  been  seen 


Past  Perfect  Tense 


If  I  had  been  seen 
[f  you  had  been  seen 
If  he  had  been  seen 


If  we  had  been  seen 
If  you  had  been  seen 
If  they  had  been  seen 


Future  Perfect  Tense 


If  I  should  have  been  seen 
If  you  should  have  been  seen 
If  he  should  have  been  seen 


If  we  should  have  been  seen 
If  you  should  have  been  sch'u 
If  they  should  have  been 
seen 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS 


"221 


IMPERATIVE   MODE 

Thou  or  you  be  seen 

Infiriitives 


Present 

Perfect 

To  be  seen 

To  have  been  seen 

Being  seen 

Participles 

Having  been  seen 

Present 

Past 

Perfect 

Being  seen 

Seen 

Having  ])een  seen 

THE   PROGRESSIVE    CONJUGATION 

The  verb  forms  that  imply  the  continuance  of  the  action 
are  said  to  be  in  the  progressive  conjugation. 

The  progressive  form  of  the  verb  is  obtained  by  using  some 
form  of  the  verb  *'be,  "  as  an  auxiUary,  followed  by  the  present 
l)articiple  of  the  principal  verb;  as,  ''I  am  studying/' 


INDICATIVE   MODE 

Present  Tense 


Singular 
I  am  seeing 
You  are  seeing 
He  is  seeing 

I  was  seemg 
You  were  seeing 
He  was  seeing 


Past    Tense 


Plural 
We  are  seeing 
You  are  seeing 
They  are  seeing 

We  were  seeing 
You  were  seeing 
They  were  seeing 


Future  Tense 
(Indicating   futurity) 


I  shall  be  seeing 
You  will  be  seeing 
He  will  be  seeing 


We  shall  be  seeing 
You  will  be  seeing 
They  will  be  seeing 


222  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

Future  Tense 
(Indicating  promise,  determination,  etc.) 

Singular  Plural 

I  will  be  seeing  We  will  be  seeing 

You  shall  be  seeing  You  shall  be  seeing 

He  shall  be  seeing  They  shall  be  seeing 

Present  Perfect  Tense 

I  have  been  seeing  We  have  been  seeing 

You  have  been  seeing  You  have  been  seeing 

He  has  been  seeing  They  have  been  seeing 

Past  Perfect  Tense 

I  had  been  seeing  We  had  been  seeing 

You  had  been  seeing  You  had  been  seeing 

He  had  been  seeing  They  had  been  seeing 

Future  Perfect  Tense 

I  shall  have  been  seeing  We  shall  have  been  seeing 

You  will  have  been  seeing  You  will  have  been  seeing 

He  will  have  been  seeing  They  will  have  been  seeing 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MODE 

Present  Tense 

If,  though,  etc.,  I  be  seeing  If,  though,  etc.,  we  be 

seeing 
If,  though,  etc.,  you  be  If,  though,  etc.,  you  be 

seeing  seeing 

If,  though,  etc.,  he  be  If,  though,  etc.,  they  be 

seeing  seeing 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS  223 

Past  Tense 

Singular  Plural 

If,  though,  etc.,  I  were  If,  though,  etc.,  we  were 

seeing  seeing 

If,  though,  etc.,  you  wore  If,  though,  etc.,  you  were 

seeing            .  seeing 

If,  though,  etc.,  he  were  If,  though,  etc.,  they  were 

seeing  seeing 

Future  Tense 

If,  though,  etc.,  I  should  be  If,  though,  etc.,  we  should  l;e 

seeing  seeing 

If,  though,  etc.,  you  should  be  If,  though,  etc.,  you  should 

seeing  be  seeing 

If,  though,  etc.,  he  should  be  If,  though,  etc.,  they  should 

seeing  be  seemg 

Present  Perfect  Tense 

If,  though,  etc.,  I  have  been  If,  though,  etc.,  we  have  been 

seeing  seeing 

If,  though,  etc.,  you  have  If,  though,  etc.,  you  have 

been  seeing  been  seeing 

If,  though,  etc.,  he  have  If,  though,  etc.,  they  have 

been  seeing  been  seeing 

Past  Perfect  Tense 

If,  though,  etc.,  I  had  been  If,  though,  etc.,  we  had 

seeing  been  seeing 

If,  though,  etc.,  you  had  If,  though,  etc.,  you  had 

been  seeing  been  seeing 

If,  though,  etc.,  he  had  been  If,  though,  etc.,  they  had 

seeing  been  seeing 


224  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

Future  Perfect  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

If,  though,  etc.,  I  should  have  If,  though,  etc.,  we  should 

been  seemg  have  been  seeing 

If,  though,  etc.,  you  should  If,  though,  etc.,  you  should, 

have  been  seeing  have  been  seeing 

If,  though,  etc.,  he  should  If,  though,  etc.,  they 
have  been  seeing  should  have  been  seeing 

THE   PROGRESSIVE   PASSIVE    CONJUGATION 

The  progressive  passive  is  obtained  by  using  the  progressive 
forms  of  the  verb  "be"  followed  by  the  past  participle  of  the 
principal  verb;  as, 

Present  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

I  am  being  seen  We  are  being  seen 

You  are  being  seen  You  are  being  seen 

He  is  being  seen  They  are  being  seen 

EMPHATIC    FORMS 

"Do"  and  "did"  are  sometimes  used  to  express  emphasis; 
as,  "I  do  study,"  "I  did  study." 

INTERROGATIVE    FORMS 

In  asking  questions,  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  placed  after 
the  first  auxiUary;  as,  "Will  you  study?" 

In  the  indicative  mode,  the  emphatic  forms  are  generally 
used  in  the  present  and  past  tenses  in  asking  questions;  as, 
"Did  he  study?" 

EXERCISE  58. 

A  sufficient  drill  on  the  conjugations  of  verbs  should  be 
given  to  assure  the  teacher  that  tlie  student  is  entirely  familiar 
with  the  conjugations  given  in  Lesson  58. 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS  225 

1.  Give  complete  conjugation  of  the  verb  study. 

2.  Conjugate  the  verb  know  in  the  indicative  mode,  passive 

voice. 

3.  Conjugate  the  verb  run  in  the  progressive  conjugation,  active 

voice. 

LESSON  59 

INFLECTION  OF  VERBS— Continued 

THE   NOMINATIVE   AND    THE    OBJECTIVE    CASES 

We  should  be  very  careful  to  use  the  nominative  and  the 
objective  forms  of  pronouns  correctly. 
Study  carefully  the  following : 

1.  Subjects  of  finite  verbs  and  words  used  in  the  7iom- 
inative  absolute  coiistruction,  should  have  the  nominative  form; 
as,  ''He  is  ill,''  "He  being  ill,  they  sent  for  the  doctor. " 

2.  Objects  of  verbs  and  prepositions j  and  the  subjects  of 
infinitives f  should  have  the  objective  form;  as,  "We  saw  him/' 
''Give  the  book  to  we,"  *'We  thought  him  to  be  the  man." 

3.  Words  in  apposition  are  in  the  same  case;  as,  *'It  was 
the  king,  he  who  was  beheaded,"  "1  saw  John,  him  whom  you 
know. " 

4.  A  word  that  follows  any  formof  the  verb ''be"  is  in  the 
sa7ne  case  as  the  subject  of  the  verb;  as,  "It  w^as  he, "  "I  know 
it  to  be  hv7i'^  (him  agrees  with  it,  the  subject  of  the  infinitive 
form  of  the  verb),  "The  man  is  thought  to  be  /ie, "  (when  the 
infinitive  does  not  have  a  subject  of  its  own,  the  word  following 
it  agrees  with  the  subject  of  the  finite  verb). 

The  compound  personal  pronouns  have  but  two  legitimate 
uses  in  the  sentence.  They  may  be  used  for  emphasis;  as, 
"He  himself  did  the  work;"  they  may  be  used  reflexively ;  as, 
"Re  hurt  himself.'' 

A  pronoun  is  said  to  be  used  reflexively  when  it  is  the  ob- 
ject of  the  verb  and  names  the  same  person  that  is  named  b}^ 
the  subject. 


226  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

In  the  sentence,  "He  was  beside  himself ^'^  we   have  an 
idiomatic  use  of  the  personal  pronoun. 

EXERCISE  59 

Write  the  number  of,  and  the  correct  word  for,  each  of 
the  foUowing  sentences. 

I,    ME,    MYSELF 

1.  Nothing  must  come  between  you  and . 

2.  May  Mary  and  • — —  go? 

3.  It  could  not  have  been  • . 

4.  Did  you  think  it  was  ■ ? 

5.  Is  she  taller  than ? 

6.  He  and  ■ — •  are  going  home. 

7.  They  saw  John  and  ■ at  the  game. 

8.  John  and  • •  walked  to  school  together. 

9.  The  walk  gave  pleasure  to  both  John  and  ■ •. 

10.  This  composition  was  written  by  ■ . 

11.  May  Henry  and  • •  go  to  the  concert? 

12.  Let  Henry  and  • ■  go  to  the  concert. 

13.  It  was ■  whom  you  saw. 

14.  If  you  were ■ -y  would  you  go? 

15.  Was  it) •  whom  you  saw? 

16.  You  study  more  diligently  than . 

17.  All  have  gone  except  you  and . 

18.  He  said  that  you  and  • should  come  to  see  him. 

19.  He  shook  hands  with  the  delegates  ■ •  among  the  rest. 

20.  Father  gave  sister  and tickets. 

21.  She  is  a  better  student  than . 

22.  You  can  do  that  as  well  as . 

23.  Father  punished  brother  and  ■ . 

24.  Get  a  book  for  James  and ■ — ■ — ■. 


25.  You  are  older  than  either  William  or . 

26.  She  invited  John  and  • . 

27.  James  and ■  are  in  the  same  class. 

28.  The  teacher  told  you  and  ■ •  to  bring  books. 

29.  This  is  between  you  and 

30.  The  tickets  are  for  you  and 

31.  I •  did  the  work. 

32.  I  hurt . 


INFLECTION  OF  VERBS  227 

WE,  US,  OURSELVES 

1.  No  one  expected  ■ •  to  win  the  game. 

2.  • girls  are  happy o 

3.  He  would  not  beheve boys. 

4.  They  and are  going  to  the  game. 

6.  They  are  better  players  than because  they  practice 

more. 

6.  He  was  disappointed  as  well  as . 

7.  The  teacher  punished  him  as  well  as . 

8.  It  was whom  you  saw. 

9.  ■ —  should  do  our  duty  at  all  times. 

10.  It  may  have  been  ■ whom  he  wanted. 

11.  He  knew  that  it  was — . 

12.  He  knew  it  to  be  • . 

13.  Father  and will  go  with  you. 

14.  He  will  not  let sit  together. 

15.  Give  the  candy  to  • •  girlso 

16.  Will  you  give  that  to ? 

17.  Did  you  see at  the  theatre? 

18.  Were  you  talking  to ? 

19.  They  did  as  well  as . 

20.  We •  can  do  that. 

21.  We  injured •  on  the  journey. 

22.  The  Germans  are  better  plodders  than — c 

23.  It  couldn 't  have  been  ■ . 

24.  Is  it  ■ ■  you  wish  to  see? 

25.  It  was  ■ — • —  who  called  to  see  you. 

SHE,    HER,    HERSELF 

1.  Is  that- ? 

2.  Yes,  that  is  ■ — . 

3.  If  I  were  • ,  I  would  attend  school. 

4.  I  know  that  it  was  • — ■ — . 

5.  I  knew  it  to  be  ^ . 

6.  and  I  are  going. 

7.  He  plays  the  piano  as  well  as  — . 

8.  lb  might  have  been — — ■ — — ■. 

9.  Give  the  flowers  to and  me. 

10.  Mary  blamed  • ■  for  the  accident . 

11.  Girls  like always  succeed. 


228  LESSONS   AND    EXEECISES   IN   ENGLISH 


12.  You  are  as  tall  as 


13.  This  is  for  you  and — . 

14.  John  and— -are in  the  play. 

15.  You  are  as  old  as- . 

16.  It  was  ■ -who  was  hurt  in  the  accident. 

17.  •  and  the  children  have  gone  to  the  park. 

18.  This  letter  is  from  ■ . 

19.  We  did  not  expect  • •  this  evening. 

20.  You  should  not  criticize  ■ so  severely. 

HE,    HIM,    HIMSELF 

1.  Let  — : — •  and  me  do  the  work. 

2.  I  can  write  as  well  as . 

3.  It  is  not  ■        — —  whom  I  met, 

4.  • — "  and  his  brother  are  coming  to-morrow. 

5.  I  think is  the  man. 

6.  I  beUeve  — to  be  the  man. 

7.  It  cannot  be •. 

g^ .  and  I  are  classmates. 

9.  All  had  gone  except  ■ . 

10.  They  wrote  to  both and  me. 

11.  He ■  was  ignorant  of  the  disaster. 

12.  has  no  one  but  — — ■ — —  to  blame. 

13.  We  think  — •  will  be  elected. 

14.  We  know  the  man  to  have  been  • . 

15.  His  mother  writes  to  ■ every  week. 

16.  Where  is  — ■ ■  employed. 

17.  There  is  an  agreement  between  ■ — ■  and  his  employers. 

18.  My  friend  and are  in  business  together. 

19.  The  police  are  searching  for  • . 

20.  They  have  found . 

THEY,   THEM,    THEMSELVES 

1 .  -; and  their  friends  have  gone  fishing. 

2.  We  shall  soon  be  with  • ■. 

3.  • ,  as  well  as  we,  will  be  glad. 

4.  I  have  known for  a  long  time. 

5.  I  know —  to  be  honest. 

6.  I  think  — ■ — ■ ■  are  honest. 

7.  It  was  — ■- who  were  embarrassed. 

8. that  do  wrong  should  bo  punished. 


INFLECTION  OF    VERBS  229 

9. that  do  wrono;  we  must  punish. 

10.  It  will  not  be  easy  for  — —         -  to  change  their  manner  of 

living. 
11. •  who  are  honest  will  be  rewarded. 

12.  — •  and  their  teacher  took  a  holiday. 

13.  The  teacher  gave  ■ — — ■ some  good  advice. 

14.  - — •  should  be  ashamed  of . 

15.  The  boys  you  speak  of  could  not  have  been . 


WHO,  WHOM,  WHOEVER,  WHOMEVER 

1.  How  can  we  tell —  is  honest? 

2.  How  can  we  tell  — — - — ■ —  to  trust? 

3.  • •  did  you  call  on? 

4..  ■ ■  do  you  think  will  go? 

5.  do  you  think  they  w^ill  take? 

6.  Give  the  book  to  — — does  the  best  work. 

7.  •  do  you  think  I  saw? 

8.  A  man  • ■  they  say  is  poor  was  injured. 

9.  That  is  for- ? 

10.  I  do  not  know  • you  mean. 

11.  He  takes  after  • ? 

12.  We  do  not  know  • it  could  have  been. 

13.  • he  selects  we  shall  be  satisfied. 

14.  Do  you  know  ■ took  the  money? 

15.  To      — ■  did  he  refer? 

16.  ■ ■  do  you  think  he  looks  like? 

17.  Do  you  know  — will  be  elected? 

18.  — •  shall  we  elect? 

19.  For did  he  vote? 

20.  To  • should  the  letter  be  sent? 

21.  • did  he  recommend? 

22. •  are  the  applicants? 

23.  ■ •  was  appointed? 

24.  This  is  my  friend  ■ —  I  want  you  to  meet. 

25.  He  has  two  brothers,  with  one  of ■  I  am  acquainted 

26.  You  have  some  friends  — — •  I  know. 

27.  ■ •  do  you  think  was  present? 

28.  ■ should  I  meet  but  my  old  friend. 

29.  I  refer  to  my  old  friend  of  — ■  I  often  speak. 

30.  —  did  he  choose? 

31.  We  will  refer  it  to you  may  choose. 


230 


LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 


S2. 
83. 
84. 
35„ 
36. 
37. 


■ the  Court  favors  is  safe. 

-— — — ■ — ■  did  3^ou  suppose  it  to  be? 

— ■ — ■ •  did  you  suppose  it  was? 

He  is  a  man  — — — —  I  respect. 


The  child 

I  know  a  man 


I  know  loves  animals. 

■  I  think  will  do  the  work. 

38.  We  like  those  persons ■  we  find  interested  in  us. 

39.  — — -  do  men  say  that  I  am. 


40.  James  is  a  boy  — 

41.  That  is  the  man 
42. 
43. 
44. 
45. 


I  believe  will  succeed. 
I  was  speaking  about. 


— have  we  here? 

W\ . — — — . —  knew  her  spoke  highly  of  her. 
This  is  our  friend  - — we  saw  in  New  York. 

— ■ — ■ — —  is  that  man? 


LESSON  60 

INFLECTION  OF  ADJECTIVES 

NUMBER 

Any  adjective  denoting  number  should  agree  in  number 
with  the  noun  it  modifies;  as,  ''He  ordered  six  barrels  of  sugar" 
not  *'He  ordered  six  barrel  of  sugar. " 

"A'*  and  ''an'^  are  used  with  singular  nouns  only. 

A  plural  adjective  is  sometimes  used  with  a  singular  noun 
to  form  a  compound  word;  as,  *'A  three-foot  stick." 

"This"  and  ''that"  have  the  plurals  ''these"  and  "those." 
"These"  and  "those"  are  frequently  misused. 

Incorrect:  I  do  not  like  those  kind  of  pens. 

Correct:  I  do  not  like  that  kind  of  pens. 

COMPARISON    OF   ADJECTIVES 

Adjectives  change  their  form  (have  an  inflection)  to  denote 
different  degrees  of  quahty,  quantity,  or  number. 

The  inflection  of  the  adjective  to  denote  different  degrees 
of  quality,  quantity,  or  nuinher  is  called  comparison. 

The  form  of  the  adjective  that  simply  names  the  quality, 


INFLECTION    OF    ADJECTIVES  231 

quantity,  or  numl^er  is  called  the  positive  degree ;  as,  "The  man 
is  strong.'^ 

That  form  of  the  adjective  which  denotes  that,  of  two  things, 
one  has  a  certain  quahty  in  a  higher  degree  than  the  other,  is 
called  the  comparative  degree;  as,  ''The  man  is  stronger  than  I." 

The  form  of  the  adjective  which  denotes  that,  of  more  than 
two  things,  one  has  a  certain  quality  in  a  greater  degree  than 
the  others,  is  called  the  superlative  degree  oi  the  adjective;  as, 
"This  man  is  the  strongest  of  the  three. " 

HOW  THE  DEGREES  ARE  FORMED 

To  form  the  comparative  of  adjectives  of  one  syllable,  we 
suffix  "er"  to  the  positive;  as,  stronger. 

To  form  the  superlative  of  adjectives  of  one  syllable,  we 
suffix  "est'*  to  the  positive;  as,  strongest. 

To  adjectives  of  two  syllables,  we  suffix  "er"  and  "est," 
when  the  words  thus  formed  are  euphonious  and  easily  pro- 
nounced; as,  merry,  merrier,  merriest;  but  not  awful,  awfuler, 
awfulest. 

When  the  word  formed  by  using  "er'*  and  "est"  is  not 
euphonious,  we  use  the  adverbs  "more"  and  "most;"  as,  more 
awful,  most  awful. 

When  the  adjective  ends  in  "e, "  the  "e"  is  dropped  be- 
fore the  ending  is  suffixed;  as,  wise,  wiser,  wisest. 

When  the  adjective  ends  in  "y  "  preceded  by  a  consonant, 
the  "y"  is  changed  to  "i"  before  the  ending  is  suffixed;  as, 
merry,  merrier,  merriest. 

Most  adjectives  ending  in  a  single  consonant  preceded  by 
a  single  short  vowel,  double  the  final  vowel  before  the  ending 
is  suffixed;  as,  sad,  sadder,  saddest. 

To  form  the  comparative  and  superlative  of  adjectives  of 
more  than  two  syllables,  we  use  the  adverbs  more  and  most; 
as,  beautiful,  more  beautiful,  most  beautiful. 


232 


LESSONS   AND   EXERCISES   IN   ENGLISH 


(Strictly  speaking  this  use  of  ''more"  and  ''most"  is  not  an 
inflection.) 

We  may  express  a  decreasing  degree  of  the  quality  by 
using  less  and  least  instead  of  more  and  most;  as,  beautiful, 
less  beautiful,  least  beautiful. 

There  are  adjectives  which  express  qualities  that  do  not 
exist  in  different  degrees;  as,  perfect,  straight,  round,  square, 
golden,  annual;  such  adjectives  do  not  admit  of  comparison. 

Some  adjectives,  however,  that  do  not  admit  of  com- 
parison are  made  to  express  different  degrees  of  comparison, 
by  being  modified  by  adverbs  which  are  compared;  as,  more 
nearly  perfect,  most  nearly  perfect. 

Some  adjectives  are  irregular  in  comparison;  they  form 
their  degrees  of  comparison  by  the  use  of  different  words. 

Study  the  following: 


Positive 

bad 
evil 
ill 
far 

fore 

good 
well 

hind 

late 

little 

many 

much 

nigh 


Comparative 

worse 

farther 
former 

better 

hinder 

r  later 

\  latter 

less 

more 
nigher 


Superlative 

worst 

farthest 

foremost 

first 

best 

hindermost 

hindmost 

latest 

last 

least 

most 

nighest 
next 


INFLECTION    OF    ADJECTIVES 


233 


Positive 

old 

top 
under 


Comparative 

r  older 
\  elder 


Superlative 

/  oldest 

[  eldest 
topmost 
undermost 


In  the  following  adjectives  the  positive  form  is  an  adverb: 


(aft) 
(forth) 

(in) 

(out) 

(up) 


after 
further 

inner 

r  outer 
\  utter 

upper 

EXERCISE  60 


aftermost 
/  furthest 
\  furthermost 
j  inmost 
\  innermost 

outmost 

uttermost 

utmost 
/  uppermost 
\  upmost 


Compare  such  of  the  following  adjectives  as  admit  of  com- 
parison and  explain  the  method  of  formation. 


rich 

this 

dead 

honorable 

friendly 

careful 

strict 

large 

daily 

great 

open 

happy 

giddy 

sweet 

empty 

clean 


calm 

distant 

slender 

shallow 

fragrant 

cheerful 

agreeable 

independent 

wonderful 

harmless 

glossy 

systematic 

near 

general 

excited 

square 


weary 

next 

little 

skilful 

circular 

after 

under 

inner 

top 

Roman 

costly 

bad 

thoughtless 

busy 

elder 

ill 


234 


LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 


wrong 

vertical 

melancholy 

white 

endless 

many 

perfect 

last 

glorious 

disgusting 

full 

sudden 

merry 

extreme 

African 

clear 

black 

natural 

brazen 

farther 
LESSON  61 

clean 

INFLECTION  OF  ADJECTIVES— Continued 

THE  USES  OF  THE  COMPARATIVE  AND  THE  SUPERLATIVE 

Any  sentence  that  expresses  a  comparison  may  be  divided 
into  two  parts:  One  part  names  the  thing  we  are  comparing 
with  something  else  and  is  called  the  first  term  of  comparison ; 
the  other  part  names  the  something  with  which  we  compare  the 
thing  named  in  the  first  term  and  is  called  the  second  terjji  of 
comparison;  as,  John  (first  term)  is  taller  than  any  other  boy  I 
know  (second  term). 

If  the  adjective  is  in  the  comparative  degree,  the  second 
term  should  not  include^  in  its  meaning,  the  first  term;  as,  ''John 
is  taller  than  any  other  boy  I  know." 

If  we  say,  ''John  is  stronger  than  any  man  I  ever  saw," 
we  say  that  John  is  stronger  than  John,  which  is  absurd. 
"John  is  stronger  than  any  other  man  I  ever  saw"  is  correct. 

When  ''than"  accompanies  the  comparative,  the  words, 
"any"  and  "all,"  should  be  followed  by  "other." 

If  the  adjective  is  in  the  superlative  degree,  the  second 
term  should  include,  in  its  meaning,  the  first  term;  as,  "John  is 
the  tallest  of  all  the  boys  I  know." 

Objects  belonging  to  classes  entirely  dissimilar  should  not 
be  compared;  as,  "There  is  no  occupation  more  honorable  than 
SL  farmer. "  In  the  sentence  just  given,  we  compare  an  occupa- 
tion and  a  man.  "There  is  no  occupation  more  honorable 
than  that  of  a  farmer, "  is  correct. 


INFLECTION    OF    ADJECTIVES  235 

When  two  things  or  two  sets  of  things  are  compared,  the 
comparative  degree  of  the  adjective  should  be  used. 

Double  comparatives  and  superlatives  should  not  be  used; 
as,  "A  more  healthier  location  cannot  be  found,"  "We  took  the 
most  pleasantest  route." 

EXERCISE  61 

Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences,  and  give  your 
reasons. 

1.  It  has  the  largest  circulation  of  any  daily  paper  in  the  state. 

2.  This  lesson  is,  of  all  others,  the  most  important. 

3.  This  book  is,  of  all  others,  the  one  I  like  best. 

4.  This  hat  of  mine  I  like  better  than  any  hat  I  have. 

5.  He  of  all  other  men  ought  to  be  the  last  to  stop  work. 

6.  Solomon  was  wiser  than  all  men. 

7.  John  has  the  best  disposition  of  any  boy  I  know. 

8.  New  York  is  wealthier  than  any  city  in  the  United  States. 

9.  New  York  is  the  wealthiest  of  any  city  in  the  United  States. 

10.  Texas  is  larger  than  any  state  in  the  Union. 

11.  He  was  the  wisest  of  all  his  brothers. 

12.  Washington  was  greater  than  any  American  statesman. 

13.  No  American  statesman  was  so  great  as  Washington. 

14.  James  w^as  the  tallest  of  his  playmates. 

15.  This  color  is  more  preferable. 

16.  Washington  is  more  beloved  than  any  man  that  ever  lived. 

17.  He  was  the  most  active  of  his  companions. 

18.  This  behef  is  becoming  more  universal. 

19.  He  was  of  all  others  the  most  honorable. 

20.  John  is  the  brightest  of  all  his  classmates. 

21.  Nothing  pleases  me  so  much  as  good  fishing. 

22.  The  most  principal  thing  was  overlooked. 

23.  This  hne  is  straighter  than  that  one. 

24.  Grant  was  the  most  distinguished  of  any  of  his  generals. 

25.  Grant    was    more   distinguished    than  any   of   his   other 

generals. 

26.  Which  was  the  greatest  man,  Washington  or  Lincoln? 

27.  London  is  the  largest  of  the  two  cities. 

28.  Shakespeare  is  greater  than  any  dramatist  that  ever  lived. 

29.  This  is  more  prettier  than  that. 


236 


LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 


30.  Who  is  the  strongest,  you  or  I? 

31.  This  result,  of  all  others,  is  most  to  be  dreaded. 

32.  Solomon  was  wiser  than  any  of  the  ancient  kings. 

33.  Which  of  these  two  books  is  the  best? 

34.  Draw  that  line  straighter. 

35.  All  the  metals  are  less  useful  than  iron. 

36.  These  kind  of  persons  are  never  satisfied. 

37.  The  room  is  twenty  foot  square. 

38.  The  farmer  exchanged  five  barrel  of  potatoes  for  fifty 

pound  of  sugar. 

39.  These  sort  of  expressions  should  be  avoided. 

40.  We  were  traveling  at  the  rate  of  forty  mile  an  hour. 

41.  Remove  this  ashes  and  put  away  that  tongs. 

42.  I  like  those  kind  of  peaches. 

43.  I  dislike  these  sort  of  apples. 

44.  Why  should  we  be  annoyed  by  these  sort  of  men? 

45.  I  admire  those  sort  of  people. 

LESSON  62 
INFLECTION  OF  ADVERBS 

Some  adverbs,  like  adjectives,  can  be  compared.  Some 
adverbs  are  compared  by  suffixing  the  endiags  ''er"  and  ''est;" 
as,  soon,  sooner,  soonest;  most  adverbs,  however,  are  compared 
by  using  with  them  ''more"  and  "most; "as, slowly,  more  slowly, 
most  slowly. 

The  following  adverbs  are  irregular  in  their  comparison. 


Positive 

Comparative 

Superlative 

badly 

worse 

worst 

far 

farther 

farthest 

forth 

further 

furthest 

ill 

worse 

worst 

little 

less 

least 

much 

more 

most 

nigh 

nigher 

nighest,  next 

well 

better 

best 

DIFFERENT  USES  OF  SOME  PARTS  OF  SPEECH 


23: 


EXERCISE  62 


Compare   such   of   the  following    adverbs    as    admit    of 
comparison : 


soon 

far 

brightly 

little 

here 

eagerly 

never 

often 

especially 

merrily 

badly 

directlv 

whenever 

exactly 

fully 

seldom 

last 

frequently 

worst 

loud 

sweetly 

hard 

early 

nearly 

long 

really 

comfortably 

LESSON  63 
DIFFERENT  USES  OF  SOME  OF  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH 

NOUNS 

Nouns  may  be  used  in  the  following  constructions : 

1.  As  subject  of  a  verb. 

Example. — Ivanhoe  is  one  of  my  favorite  books. 

2.  As  subjective  complement. 

Example. — Washington  was  a  punctual  man. 

3.  As  object  complement. 
Example. — They  saw  the  president. 

4.  As  objective  complement. 
Example. — They  elected  Smith  ca'ptain. 

5.  Independently. 

Ex^vMPLE. — Johuy  where  is  your  book? 

6.  As  the  principal  term  in  a  prepositional  phrase. 
Example. — The  boy  fell  into  the  water. 

7.  As  an  appositive. 

Example. — John,  the  blacksmith,  was  injured. 


238  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

Appositives  with  the  words  belonging  to  them  are  set  off 
by  the  comma,  unless  (1)  they  are  pronomis,  or  (2)  essential 
modifiers  not  compound. 

Example. — I  myself  did  the  work  (pronoun). 

His  brother  James  has  arrived  (essential  modifier) . 

8.  As  an  adverbial  modifier. 
Example. — He  went  ho7ne. 

9.  As  an  indirect  object. 

Example. — Congress  gave  Captain  Scott  a  medal. 

10.  As  a  possessive. 
Example.— Jo/in' s  arm  was  broken. 

PRONOUNS 

Pronouns  may  have  the  following  uses: 

1.  As  subject  of  a  verb. 
Example. — He  has  gone  home. 

2.  As  subjective  complement. 
Example. — It  was  he. 

3.  As  object   complement. 
Example. — We  saw  hvm. 

4.  As  the  principal  term  in  a  prepositional  phrase. 
Example. — We  gave  the  book  to  him. 

5.  As  an  appositive. 

Example. — It  was  Joseph,  he  whom  Pharaoh  made  prhne- 
minister. 

6.  As  an  indirect  object. 
Example. — They  gave  him  a  knife. 

7.  As  a  possessive. 
Example. — His  hat  is  lost. 

adverbs 
Adverbs  may  modify: 

1.  Verbs;  as,  He  ran  rapidly. 

2.  Participles;  as,  Turning  the  corner  suddenly,  we  came 
upon  a  group  of  children. 


DEPENDENT    CLAUSES  239 

3.  Infinitives;  as,  To  act  honorably  was  his  desire. 

4.  Adjectives;  as,  She  was  exceedingly  kind. 

5.  Adverbs;  as,  John  studied  very  dihgently. 

6.  Preposition;  as,  The  barn  stands  ji/.si  behind  the  house. 

7.  Phrases;  as,  The  man  was  almost  out  of  sight. 

8.  Clauses;  as,  He  does  exactly  as  he  pleases. 

9.  Conjunctions;  as.  He  goes,  just  because  he  must. 

EXERCISE  63 

Write  at  least  two  original  sentences,  illustrating  each  of 
the  uses  of  the  noun,  pronoun  and  adverb. 

LESSON  64 

DEPENDENT  CLAUSES 

THE  NOUN  CLAUSE 

A  clause  that  is  used  as  a  noun,  is  a  noun  clause. 

A  noun  clause  may  be  used  in  the  following  difierent  ways: 

1.  As  subject. 

That  we  should  study  diligently  is  not  disputed. 

2.  As  object  complement. 

We  believe  that  we  should  study  diligently. 

3.  As  subjective  complement. 

Our  belief  is,  that  we  should  study  diligently. 

4.  In  apposition  with  the  subject '' it. " 

It  is  accepted  that  we  shoidd  study  diligently. 

5.  After  a  preposition. 

AVe  believed  everything  he  said  except  that  we  should  not 
study. 

6.  In  apposition. 

The  belief,  that  we  should  study  diligently,  is  accepted  by  all. 

7.  As  the  assumed  subject  of  a  participle. 

That  we  should  study  diligently  having  been  accepted,  let 
us  act  accordingh'. 


240  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

PUNCTUATION  OF  NOUN  CLAUSES 

Rule  1. — If  a  noun  clause  is  used  as  a  direct  quotation, 
it  is  set  off  by  the  comma,  unless  the  words  preceding  the  quo- 
tation are  such  as  can  be  followed  only  by  a  direct  quotation, 
under  which  condition,  the  quotation  is  preceded  by  the  colon. 

Example  1. — Lawrence  said,   ^' Don't  give  up  the  ship." 

2.  The  words  of  Lawrence  were:  *'  Don't  give  up  the  ship. " 

Rule  2. — A  noun  clause  used  as  subjective  complement  is 
set  off  by  the  comma. 

Example  1. — Our  belief  is,  that  we  should  stud^^  diligently. 

Rule  3. — A  noun  clause  used  as  an  appositive  is  set  off  by 
the  comma,  unless  the  clause  is  in  apposition  with  the  subject 
'4t." 

Example  1. — The  fact,  that  we  should  study  diligently,  is 
generally  accepted. 

2.  It  is  believed  that  we  should  study  diligently. 

EXERCISE  64 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences  and  tell  how  the  noun 
clauses  are  used. 

L  When  letters  were  first  used  is  not  known 

2.  Tweed's  defiant  question  was  what  are  you  going  to  do 

about  it 

3.  The  question    ever  asked  and  never  answered  is  where 

and  how  am  I  to  exist  in  the  hereafter 

4.  The  myth  concerning  Achilles  is  that  he  was  invulnerable 

in  every  part  except  the  heel 

5.  This  we  know  that  our  future  depends  on  our  present 

6.  Hamlet's  exclamation  was  what  a  piece  of  work  is  man 

7.  We  believe  that  the  first  printing-press  in  America  was  set 

up  in  Mexico  in  1536 

8.  A  man's  chief  objection  to  a  woman  is  that  she  has  no 

respect  for  the  newspaper 

9.  Froude  said  that  mistakes  were  often  the  best  teachers 

10.  Antony's  opening  sentence  was  if  you  have  tears  to  shed 
prepare  to  shed  them  now 


DEPENDENT   CLAUSES  241 

11.  A  part  of  Plato's  l)clief  was  that  the  elements  were  peopled 

with  spirits 

1 2.  Shakespeare 's  words  concerning  much  talking  are  talkers 

are  no  good  doers 

13.  Shakespeare's  metaphor  night's  candles   are   burnt  out  is 

one  of  the  finest  in  literature 

14.  A  peculiarity  of  English  is  that  it  has  so  many  borrowed 

words 

15.  It  will  ask  of  you  what  can  you  do 

16.  He  remembers  what  he  learns 

17.  Have  you  ascertained  who  wrote  the  letter 

18.  ]\Ian  can  do  what  man  has  done 

19.  Reputation  is  what  w^e  seem  but  character  is  what  we  are 

20.  We  shall  never  know  who  wrote  the  book 

21.  The  last  words  of  John  B.  Gough  were  young  man  make 

your  record  clean 

22.  Carljde  has  wisely  said  that  the  greatest  of  faults  is  to  be 

conscious  of  having  none 

23.  It  is  a  law  of  life  that  one  should  not  tax   his   physical 

strength  to  its  extreme  limit 

24.  There  is  some  disjDute  about  who  was   the   greatest   of 

American  orators 

25.  We  read  in  the  Old  Testament  that  Daniel  was  thrown 

into  the  lions  ^  den  and  that  the  lions  did  him  no  harm 

Write  at  least  two  sentences,  illustrating  each  of  the  uses 
of  the  noun  clause. 

LESSON  65 

DEPENDENT  CLAUSES— Continued 

THE  ADJECTIVE  CLAUSE 

A  clause  that  is  used  as  an  adjective  is  an  adjective  clause. 
An  adjective  clause  may  be  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of: 

1.  Subject. 

Example. — The  seed  which  was  planted,   has  become   a 
large  tree. 

2.  Object. 

Example. — The  heart  has  eyes  that  the  brain  knows  not. 

3.  Noun  as  subjective  complement. 


242  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES   IN    ENGLISH 

Example. — Life  is  a  i^lant  that  grows  out  of  death. 
4.  Object  of  a  preposition. 

Example.- — Learning  hath  gained  most  by  those  books 
which  the  printers  have  lost. 

PUNCTUATION  OF  ADJECTIVE  CLAUSES 

Rule  1. — The  adjective  clause  is  set  off  by  the  comma, 
unless  it  restricts  (narrows)  the  meaning  of  the  word  modified. 

Example  L — Water,  which  is  composed  of  two  gases,  is  a 
liquid. 

Example  2. — Water  that  is  stagnant  is  not  healthful. 

Rule  2. — An  adjective  clause  out  of  its  natural  order  is 
set  off  by  the  comma. 

Example. — Whom  ye  worship,  Him  declare  I  unto  you. 

Rule  3. — When  the  subject  of  a  sentence  ends  in  a  verb, 
or  consists  of  parts  separated  by  commas,  it  is  separated  from 
its  predicate  by  the  comma.  Frequently  an  adjective  clause 
used  in  the  sentence  causes  the  subject  to  end  in  a  verb. 

Example. — The  evil  that  men  do,  lives  after  them. 

EXERCISE  65 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences  and  tell  how  the  ad- 
jective clauses  are  used,  and  what  part  of  speech  each  adjective 
clause  modifies. 

1.  The  lever  which  moves  the  world  of  mind  is  the  printing 

press 

2.  The  thirteen  colonies  were  welded  together  by  the  measures 

which  Samuel  Adams  framed 

3.  It  was  the  same  book  that  I  referred  to 

4.  Attention  is  the  stuff  that  memory  is  made  of 

5.  Gladstone  is  a  man  whom  I  call  worthy  of  the  name 

6.  Andrew  Johnson  was  the  President  whose  wife  taught  him 

to  read  and  write 

7.  Have   you    ever   visited   the   place   where   the   battle    of 

Gettysburg  was  fought 

8.  Do  you  know  the  reason  why  no   dew  is   formed   on   a 

cloudy  night 


DEPENDENT   CLAUSES  243 

9.  July  is  the  time  thab  farmers  harvest  their  grain 

10.  God  wrought  a  plan  whereby  all  men  may  be  redeemed 

11.  A  city  that  is  set  on  a  hill  cannot  be  hid 

12.  There  is  nothing  in  the  world  but  was  made  by  God 

13.  Youth  is  the  time  w^hen  the  seed  of  character  is  sown 

14.  A  depot  is  a  place  where  stores  are  deposited 

15.  Unhappy  is  the  man  whose  mother  does  not  make  all 

mothers  interesting 

16.  I  have  read  the  book  which  you  lent  me 

17.  The  story  that  it  tells  is  interesting 

18.  The  author  who  is  a  woman  lives  in  Texas 

19.  Help  those  that  are  weak 

20.  Invite  the  gentleman  of  whom  you  spoke 

21.  He  gave  all  thab  he  had 

22.  Those  thab  are  rich  should  help  those  that  are  poor 

23.  A  man  who  cannot  govern  himself  is  a  slave 

24.  Our  journey  which  was  very  tiresome  ended  at  last 

25.  The  friends  whom  we  visited  have  come 

26.  The  tomato  which  is  now  a  common  article  of  food  was 

scarcely  known  a  century  ago 

27.  The  poor  man  that  knows  him  laughs  loudest  of  all 

28.  The  fire-cracker  and  the  sky-rocket  which  play  so  important 

a  part  in  the  exhibitions   of  American  patriotism  are 
made  by  the  Chinese 

29.  My  worthy  friend  has  put  me  under  the  care  of  his  butler 

who  is  a  very  prudent  man 

30.  They  that  are  accompanied  by  noble  thoughts  are  never 

alone 
Write  at  least  two  sentences,  illustrating  each  of  the  uses 
of  the  adjective  clause. 

LESSON  66 

DEPENDENT  CLAUSES— Continued 

ADVERB  CLAUSES 

A  clause  that  is  used  as  an  adverb  is  an  adverb  clause. 

The  common  uses  of  adverb  clauses  are  to  express: 

1.  Time:  John  was  sick  ivhen  he  was  in  New  York,     (l^su- 

ally  introduced  by  w^hen,  while,  before,  often,  as  soon  as,  until, 

since,  etc.) 


244  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

2.  Place:  The  blood  will  follow  where  the  knife  is  draum. 
(Usually  introduced  by  where,  wherever,  etc.) 

3.  Cause:  We  are  happy  now  because  God  wills  it.  (Usu- 
ally introduced  by  since,  for,  because,  in  order  that,  so  that,  etc.) 

4.  Condition:  No  education  deserves  the  name  unless  it 
develops  thought,    (Usually  introduced  by  if,  unless,  except,  etc.) 

5.  Concession:  Though  he  slay  ine,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him. 
(Usually  introduced  by  though,  although,  notwithstanding, 
etc.) 

6.  Result:  It  rained  so  that  ive  did  7iot  go.  (Usually  in- 
troduced by  so  that,  therefore,  etc.) 

7.  Manner:  He  does  as  he  likes.  (Usually  introduced  by 
how,  as,  etc.) 

PUNCTUATION  OF  THE  ADVERB  CLAUSE 

Unless  the  adverb  clause  is  an  essential  modifier  and  follows 
closely  the  word  modified,  it  is  set  off  by  the  comma. 
Example. — ^We  ran  when  we  heard  the  report. 
When  we  heard  the  report,  we  ran. 

EXERCISE  66 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences,  and  classify  the  adverb 
clauses. 

1.  A  book's  a  book  although  there's  nothing  in  it 

2.  While  craving  justice  for  ourselves  it  is  never  wise  to  be 

unjust  to  others 

3.  If   we  did  not  flatter   ourselves  the   flatteries   of   others 

could  do  us  no  harm 

4.  The  flatteries  of  others  could  do  us  no  harm  if  we  did 

not  flatter  ourselves 

5.  My  chief  companion  when  Sir  Roger  is  diverting  himself  in 

the  woods  or  the  fields  is  the  chaplain 
Q.  It  is  the  practice  of  the  multitude  to  bark  at  eminent  men  as 
little  dogs  do  at  strangers 

7.  Gold  is  green  in  color  when  it  is  thin  enough  to  be  transparent 

8.  If  a  good  face  is  a  letter  of  reconnnendation  a  good  heart  is  a 

letter  of  credit 


DEPENDENT   CLAUSES  24.5 

9.  Never  eat  till  you  are  liungry 

10.  If  the  world  does  not  admire  you  and  nie  it  is  because  it  sees 

nothing  in  us  to  admire 

11.  Sleep  riches  and  health  are  only  truly  enjoyed  after  they  have 

been  interrupted 

12.  As  the  upright  man  thinks  so  he  speaks 

13.  31ang  is  alwa^^s  vulgar  as  it  is  an  affected  way  of  talking 

14.  We  should  keep  the  pores  of  the  skin  open  for  through  them 

the  blood  throws  off"  its  impurities 

15.  Since  the  breath  contains  poisonous  carbonic  acid  wise  people 

ventilate  their  sleeping  rooms 

16.  Sea-bathing  is  the  most  healthful  kind  of  washing  because  it 

combines  fresh  air  and  vigorous  exercise  with  its  other 
benefits 

17.  Wheat  is  the  most  valuable  of  grains  because  bread  is  made 

from  its  flour 

18.  God  was  angry  with  the  children  of  Israel  for  He  overthrew 

them  in  the  wilderness 

19.  Tobacco  and  the  potato  are  American  products  because  Ra- 

leigh found  them  here 

20.  It  rained  last  night  because  the  ground  is  wet  this  morning 

21.  If  the  air  is  quickly  compressed  enough  heat  is  evolved  to 

produce  combustion 

22.  Unless  your  thought  packs  easily  and  neatly  in  verse  always 

use  prose 

23.  If  ever  you  saw  a  crow  wdth  a  king-bird  after  him  you  have 

an  image  of  a  dull  speaker  and  a  lively  listener 

24.  Although  the  brain  is  only  one-fortieth  of  the  body  about 

one-sixth  of  the  blood  is  sent  to  it 

25.  If  the  War  of  Roses  did  not  utterly  destroy  English  freedom 

it  arrested  its  progress  for  a  hundred  years 

Write  at  least  two  sentences  illustrating  each  of  the  uses  of 
the  adverb  clause. 


246  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES   IN    ENGLISH 

LESSON  67 
PUNCTUATION 
THE   PERIOD   (.) 

The  period  should  follow: 

1.  All  declarative  and  imperative  sentences;  as, 

(1)  We  received  your  letter  yesterday. 

(2)  Write  us  immediately. 

2.  Initials  and  most  abbreviations :  as 

(1)  R.  W.  Emerson. 

(2)  Mr.  Robert  Jones. 

3.  Figures  used  to  number  a  list  of  names  or  subjects, 
paragraphs  or  parts  of  paragraphs;  as, 

History. 

1.  Ancient. 

2.  Mediaeval. 

3.  Modern. 

4.  Side-heads  of  paragraphs,  the  titles  of  books,  etc.,  when 
followed  by  the  name  of  the  author;  as, 

(1)  Cost  of  installation.     The  cost  of  installation  will  not 
exceed  fifty  dollars. 

(2)  Bookkeeping  and  Accountancy.     Dr.  H.  M.  Rowe. 

5.  The  introductory  address  and  signature  of  letters. 
The  period  should  not  follow: 

1.  Abbreviated  forms  that  are  recognized  by  usage  as  words 
in  themselves;  as,  Will,  Tom,  Ned. 

2.  Headings  of  chapters,  subheadings,  items  in  tabulated 
matter,  or  Roman  numerals;  as, 

(1)  Chapter  V,  Lesson  six,  contracts 

(2)  Please  ship  us  the  following: 
50  lb.  Butter 

100  lb.  Gem  Flour 
75  lb.  Oatmeal 


PUNCTUATION  247 

(3)  Book  VI 

3.  1st,  2d,  3d,  etc. 

4.  Display  lines  on  title  pages;  as, 

Nature  and  Culture 

by 

Hamilton  Wright  Mabie 

New  York 

Dodd,  IMead  &  Co. 

1903 

THE  INTERROGATION  POINT  (?) 

The  interrogation  point  should  follow: 

1.  A  direct  question;  as,  Are  these  books  for  sale? 

2.  A  direct  question  that  forms  a  part  of  a  declarative  or 
an  imperative  sentence;  as,  ''Have  they  gone?"  he  asked. 

3.  Each  question  in  a  compound  interrogative  sentence; 
as.  Was  the  man  hurt?  or  did  he  escape? 

The  interrogation  point  should  not  follow: 

1.  An  indirect  question;  as.  He  asked  if  they  had  gone. 

EXCLAMATION  POINT  (!) 

The  exclamation  point  should  follow: 

1.  Interjections,  exclamatory  expressions,  and  exclamatory 
sentences;  as, 

(1)  Wait!  you  are  in  danger. 

(2)  O  brave  young  man! 

(3)  How  the  wind  blows! 

"Oh"  may  be  followed  by  either  a  comma  or  an  excla- 
mation point;  as, 

1.  Oh!  where  did  he  go? 

2.  Oh,  how  glad  I  am  to  see  him! 

"0"  is  used  in  direct  address  and  may  be  followed  by  a 
comma  but  should  never  be  followed  innnediately  by  an  ex- 
clamation point;  as. 


248  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

1.  O  my  fellow-citizens! 

2.  O,  come  here! 

EXERCISE  67 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  periods,  interro- 
gation points,  and  exclamation  points  where  necessary. 

1.  How  he  could  trot  how  he  could  run 

2.  How  much  greater  is  our  nation  in  poetry  than  prose  how 

much  better,  in  general,  do  the  productions  of  its  spirit  show 
in  the  qualities  of  genius  than  in  the  qualities  of  intelligence 

3.  Who  will  bring  me  into  the  strong  city  who  will  lead  me  into 

Edom 

4.  How  can  you  do  this 

5.  Did  you  come  to  get  your  book 

6.  Could  you  find  the  place 

7.  Where  now  be  those  things  of  yours  that  were  wont  to  set 

the  table  in  a  roar  your  gibes  j^our  gambols  your  songs 
your  flashes  of  merriment 

8.  Alas  what  are  we  doing  all  through  life 

9.  What  sort  of  a  great  li  terature  a  literature  great  in  the  special 

qualities  of  genius,  or  great  in  the  special  qualities  of 
intelligence 

10.  How  art  thou  fallen  from  Heaven,  O  Lucifer,  son  of  the 

morning 

1 1 .  Say  I  these  things  as  a  man  or  saith  not  the  law  the  same  also 

12.  When  can  you  call 

13.  What  a  game  that  was 

14.  How  the  wind  blows 

15.  Why  will  you  not  ask  him 
IG.  How  they  play  ball 

17.  Wh^t  will  it  cost 

18.  Can  we  not  see  you  to-morrow 

19.  What  a  time  we  had 

20.  Shall  we  not  send  you  the  goods 

21.  You  are  a  fine  fellow 

22.  How  did  you  get  it 

23.  Shall  treachery,   shall   robbery,   shall  assassination,   shall 

murder,  triumph  in  this  decision 

24.  Shall  treachery  triumph  in  this  decision  sliall  robbery  shall 

assassination  shall  murder 


PUNCTUATION  249 

25.  The  question,  "  What  ])ecame  of  the  ten  tribes  of  Israel "  has 

never  been  satisfactorily  answered 
2G.  Dr  Robert  B  Jones 

27.  H  D  Smith,  D  D 

28.  James  Brown,  Esq 

29.  He  is  a  member  of  the  Y  M  C  A 

30.  He  left  at  530  p  m;  I  saw  him  enter  the  car 

31.  He  died  on  the  5th  of  Jan,  1914 

32.  He  was  appointed  to  a  clerkship  in  the  P  O  department  in 

Wilmington,  Del 

33.  John  Smith,  Esq  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa  and  died  in 

Albany,  N  Y 

34.  The  NYC  and  Hudson  R  R  R  is  the  longest  railway  line  in 

the  state  of  N  Y 

35.  M  S  Brown,  IM  D  arrived  at  630  a  m 

LESSON  68 

PUNCTUATION— Continued 

THE  SEMICOLON   ( ;) 

The  semicolon  is  used: 

1.  To  separate  the  independent  clauses  of  a  compound 
sentence  when  the  conjunction  is  omitted;  as,  Order  received 
to-day;  goods  will  be  shipped  to-morrow. 

2.  To  separate  the  independent  clauses  of  a  compound 
sentence  when  the  clauses  themselves  are  subdivided  by  commas ; 
as,  The  car  of  coal  was  shipped  Friday;  and  the  car  of  lumber, 
Thursday. 

3.  To  separate  expressions  in  a  series,  dependent  upon  the 
same  introductory  clause  or  expression;  as,  A  man's  success  in 
business  is  decided  principally  by  the  three  following  conditions : 
The  character  of  the  man;  his  mental  and  business  qualifications; 
and  the  circumstances  by  which  he  is  surromided. 

4.  To  separate  *' otherwise/'  ''also,''  ''therefore,"  and 
similar  words,  with  the  clauses  these  words  introduce,  from  the 
preceding  part  of  the  sentence;  as, 


250  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISE^    IN    ENGLISH 

(1)  If  you  cannot  sell  these  goods,  send  them  to  us;  other- 
wise, send  us  a  check. 

(2)  We  did  not  hear  from  him;  therefore,  we  shall  not  go. 

^'Namely,''  *'to-wit,'^  ''viz.,''  '^e.  g.,'' and  similar  expres- 
sions, when  used  to  introduce  an  example  or  an  illustration,  are 
frequently  preceded  by  a  semicolon  and  followed  by  a  comma; 
as.  The  teacher  made  three  requests  of  us;  namely,  that  we  be 
punctual,  that  we  be  diligent,  that  we  be  manly. 

EXERCISE  68 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  periods,  interro- 
gation points,  and  semicolons  where  necessary. 

1 .  Friends  may  desert  him  enemies  may  throng  his  way  disaster 

may  threaten  him  bodily  weakness  may  assail  him  but  still 
with  heroic  courage  he  keeps  on  his  way 

2.  Industry  is  essential  to  thrift  there  is  no  such  thing  as  un- 

assisted accumulation 

3.  The  entrance  of  thy  words  giveth  light  it  giveth  understand- 

ing to  the  simple 

4.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  anything  that  exists,  or  of  which  we 

have  any  notion  as,  London,  man,  virtue 

5.  Four  things  are  desirable  for  a  good  place  of  residence  a 

good  climate,  a  good  soil,  pure  air,  and  good  water 

6.  The  ancient  Greek  language  has  been  divided  by  grammar- 

ians into  four  principal  dialects  viz.  Attic,  Ionic,  Doric 
and  Aeolic 

7.  Only  three  persons  were  engaged  in  the  conflict  a  stout 

Englishman,  a  swarthy  Italian,  and  an  excited  Frenchman 

8.  He  was  courteous,  not  cringing,  to  superiors  affable,  not 

familiar,  to  equals  and  kind,  but  not  condescending  or 
supercilious,  to  inferiors 

9.  Patience,  1  say  your  mind  perhaps  may  change 

10.  Apply  your  whole  heart  to  this  day 's  work  you  will  never 

have  the  opportunity  again 

11.  A  wise  man  seeks  to  shine  in  himself  a  fool,  in  others 

12.  Hear  O  my  son  and  receive  m}^  sayings  and  the  years  of  thy 

life  shall  be  many 

13.  He  had  four  virtues  namely,  meekness,  patience,  temperance, 

charity 


PUNCTUATION  251 

14.  Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard  consider  her  ways  and  be  wise 

15.  Caesar  was  dead  the  soldiers  were  dispersed  all  Rome  was 

in  confusion 

16.  The  Lord  by  wisdom  hath  founded  the  earth  by  understand- 

ing hath  he  established  the  heavens 

17.  The  semicolon  is  used  in  contrasts  as  flattery  brings  friends 

truth  brings  foes 

18.  Length  of  days  is  in  her  right  hand  and  in  her  left  hand  riches 

and  honor 

19.  The  prodigal  robs  his  heirs  the  miser  rol)S  himself 

20.  Trust  in  the  Lord  with  all  thine  heart  and  lean  not  thine 

ear  unto  thine  own  understanding 

21.  There  is  a  fierce  conflict  between  good  and  evil  but  good  is 

in  the  ascendant  and  must  triumph  at  last 

22.  My  son  forget  not  my  law  but  let  thine  heart  keep  my 

commandments 

23.  Reading  makes  a  full  man  conference  a  ready  man  and 

writing  an  exact  man 

24.  The  women  are  generally  pretty  few  of  them  are  brunettes 

many  of  them  are  discreet  and  a  good  number  are  lazy 

25.  As  we  perceive  the  shadow  to  have  moved  bub  did  not 

perceive  it  moving  so  our  advances  in  learning  con- 
sisting of  such  minute  steps  are  perceivable  only  by 
the  distance 

26.  So  sad  and  dark  a  story  is  scarcely  to  be  found  in  any 

work  of  fiction  and  we  are  little  disposed  to  envy  the 
moralist   who   can   read   it   without   being   softened 

LESSON  69 

PUNCTUATION— Continued 

THE  COLON  (:) 

The  colon  should  follow: 

1.  A  formal  introduction  to  a  series  of  items  or  expressions; 


as, 


(1)  Please  ship  us  the  following: 
50  lb.  Butter 
100  lb.  Gem  Flour 
75  lb.  Oatmeal. 


252  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES   IN   ENGLISH 

^2)  You  should  buy  this  machine  for  three  reasons:  First, 
it  will  save  you  time;  second,  it  will  save  you  money;  third,  it 
will  save  you  expense. 

2.  A  formal  introduction  to  a  quotation.  A  quotation 
is  said  to  have  a  formal  introduction  when  the  introductory 
expression  is  a  complete  sentence;  as, 

(1)  We  received  from  him  this  reply:  "Shipped  goods 
yesterday." 

2.  He  wired  us  as  follows*  ''Consignee  refuses  to  receiv^e 
goods. " 

3.  The  salutation  of  a  letter  and  expressions  used  in  forma) 
address;  as, 

(1)  Dear  Sir: 

(2)  Gentlemen: 

(3)  My  dear  Sir: 

(4)  Dear  Madam: 

(5)  Mr.  Chairman: 

EXERCISE  69 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  all  the  required 
marks  of  punctviation. 

1.  We  suggest  that  you  see  the  following  persons  William  Jones, 

Wilmington,  Del  Joseph  Smith,  York,  Pa  and  Frank 
Brown,  Reading,  Pa 

2.  We  offer  you  the  following  prices  on  coal  pea  $5.25  a  ton 

nut  S7.50  a  ton  stove  $7.25  a  ton 

3.  The  board  of  directors  elected  for  the  year  1914-15  is  aa 

follows  President,  Mr.  Howard  Jones  Vice  President,  Mr. 
Russell  Harris  Secretary,  Mr.  Frank  Henry  Treasurer,  Mr. 
Marshall  Ridgeway 

4.  Mr.  President  I  move  that  we  adjourn 

5.  These  words  were  painted  on  the  board  Stop,  look,  and  listen 

6.  Admiral  Dewey's  explanation  was  this  ''The  cable  was  cut, 

and  I  could  not  report" 

7.  Ladies  and  Gentlemen  I  am  delighted  etc 

S.  The  Hon,  William  J.  Bryan  was  then  introduced  and  spoke 
as  follows 


PUNCTUATION  253 

9.  I  was  there  for  two  reasons  I  wanted  to  see,  and  I  dared  not 
stay  away 

10.  He  stated  his  motion  thus  Resolved  that  the  matter  ])e 

laid  on  the  table 

1 1 .  Observe  the  following  rules  The  pronoun  must  agree  etc 

12.  We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident  That  all  men,  etc 

13.  These  are  the  present  rates  To   Pittsburg,  35  cents  per 

100  lbs.  to  Chicago,  38  cents  to  Duluth,  45  cents 

14.  In  his  last  moments,   he  uttered   these  words  *'I  fall  a 

sacrifice"  etc 

15.  Pope  makes  this  remark  There  never  was  any  part 3^  in 

which  the  most  ignorant  were  not  the  most  violent 

16.  He  asked  this  question  Why  is  it  the  older  I  grow  the  more 

my  faith  in  religion  is  confirmed 

17.  For  Addison  three  defenses  may  be  set  up  (1)  his  satire 

arouses  no  bitterness  (2)  it  is  never  personal  (3)  it  is 
always  employed  on  the  side  of  virtue 

18.  At  the  close  of  the  meeting  the  President  arose  and  said 

Ladies  and  gentlemen 

19.  He  put  the  question  thus  Can  3"ou  do  it 

20.  Cain  asked  this  question  Am  I  my  brother's  keeper 

LESSON  70 

PUNCTUATION— Continued 

COMMA  (,) 

1.  A  comma  should  separate  words  or  phrases  used  in  a 
series;  as, 

(1)  Industry,   honesty,   and   temperance   are   among   the 
cardinal  virtues. 

(2)  A  calm,  serene,  cheerful  old  age  is  always  useful. 

(3)  To  work,  to  pla}',  to  laugh,  to  love  mean  success. 

2.  An  appositive  of  more  than  one  word  is  set  off  by  com- 
mas; as, 

(1)  Baltimore,  the  Monumeatal  cit^^,  has  grown  rapidly. 

(2)  Mr.  Smith,  our  representative,  will  call  to-morrow. 

3.  Adverbial  phrases  and  clauses,  when  used  at  the  begin- 


254  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

ning  of  a  sentence,  and  expressions  used  by  way  of  introduction 
should  be  followed  by  the  comma;  as, 

(1)  In  the  evening,  they  went  home. 

(2)  While  the  sun  shines,  make  hay. 

(3)  Answering  your  letter  of  the  15th  inst.,  we  say  etc. 

4.  A  word,  phrase,  or  clause  which  may  be  omitted  without 
destroying  the  meaning  of  the  sentence,  should  be  marked  off 
by  commas;  as, 

(1)  The  fault,  however,  is  yours. 

(2)  I  have,  on  the  other  hand,  employed  him. 

(3)  A.  L.  Brown,  being  duly  sworn  and  examined,  testifies 
as  follows: 

(4)  Mr.  Jones,  who  is  our  general  manager,  is  out  of  town. 

5.  When  no  one  of  the  independent  clauses  of  a  compound 
sentence  is  divided  by  the  comma  and  connecting  words  are 
used,  the  clauses  should  be  separated  by  the  comma;  as, 

(1)  You  may  go,  but  I  shall  remain  here. 

6.  Any  w^ord,  phrase,  or  clause  that  is  out  of  its  natural 
place  in  the  sentence  is  set  oif  by  commas;  as, 

(1)  Upward,  the  sparks  flew. 

(2)  As  evidence  of  our  good  faith,  we  submit  the  following: 

(3)  When  he  arrives,  we  shall  be  there. 

7.  If  the  introductory  expression  of  a  quotation  is  not  a 
complete  sentence,  the  comma  should  follow  the  expression;  as, 

(1)  He  replied  saying,  ''Goods  were  shipped  yesterday." 

8.  A  non-restrictive  adjective  clause  should  be  set  off  by 
commas;  as, 

(1)  They  all  looked  at  John,  who  had  not  spoken. 
A  restrictive  adjective  clause  should  not  be  marked  off  by 
commas;  as, 

(1)  The  student  who  received  the  prize  was  delighted. 

9.  Certain  omissions  are  shown  by  the  use  of  the  comma;  as, 
(1)  In  the  morning,  we  went  to  his  office;  later,  to  his 

home. 


PUNCTUATION  255 

10.  A  title  or  a  degree  should  be  separated  from  the  noun 
which  it  follows  by  a  comma;  as, 

(1)  G.  M.  Philips,  Ph.  D. 

(2)  J.  A.  Jones,  A.  M. 

11.  If  the  subject  of  a  sentence  ends  with  a  verb,  the  sub- 
ject should  be  followed  by  a  comma;  as, 

(1)  What  he  says,  is  correct. 

(2)  The  land  that  Penn  settled,  was  called  Pennsylvania. 

12.  Independent  elements  should  be  set  off  by  commas; 

(1)  Independent  by  direct  address;  as,  O  Grave,  where  is 
thy  victory? 

(2)  Independent  by  pleonasm;  as,  Thy  rod  and  thy  staff, 
they  comfort  me. 

(3)  Independent  Infinitive  phrase;  as,  To  tell  the  truth,  I 
regret  it. 

(4)  Independent  Participial  phrases;  as.  Properly  speaking, 
that  is  true. 

EXERCISE  70 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  commas  where 
needed. 

1.  By  the  way  did  you  hear  the  news? 

2.  John  Milton  the  author  of  Paradise  Lost  was  blind. 

3.  The  bridge  having  been  swept  away  we  returned. 

4.  I  rise  Mr.  President  to  make  a  motion. 

5.  John  come  here. 

6.  English  grammar  the  science  that  teaches  us  the  relation 

o^  the  words  of  a  sentence  is  helpful  to  a  thorough  under- 
standing of  punctuation. 

7.  Honor  lost  all  is  lost. 

8.  Why  how  is  that? 

9.  O  sir  help  me. 

10.  The  Nile  a  large  river  of  Africa  makes  Egypt  fertile. 

11.  But  the  wicked  they  shall  be  overthrown. 

12.  Affectation  the  desire  of  seeming  to  be  what  we  are  not  is 

the  besetting  sin  of  men. 

13.  Troy  being  taken  by  the  Greeks  Aeneas  came  to  Italy. 


256  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

14.  The  diligent  they  shall  succeed. 

15.  To  confess  the  truth  I  did  ifc  thoughtlessly. 

16.  Speaking  definitely  you  are  the  man. 

17.  All  things  else  being  destroyed  virtue  could  sustain  herself. 

18.  The  comma  generally  speaking  indicates  misplacement   or 

omission. 

19.  What  then  is  your  view  of  it? 

20.  To  speak  plainly  your  habits  are  your  worst  enemies. 

21.  The  cavalry  advanced  the  infantry  remaining  in  the  rear. 

22.  England 's  debt  to  put  it  in  round  numbers  is  four  billion 

dollars. 

23.  The  Franks  a  warlike  people  gave  their  name  to  France. 

24.  Slang  is  always  vulgar  as  it  is  an  affected  way  of  speaking. 

25.  Maceo  the  brilliant  Cuban  cavalry  leader  was  betrayed. 

26.  Give  time  to  the  study  of  nature  whose  laws  are  interesting. 

27.  Whatever  is  is  right. 

28.  Paper  was  invented  in  China  if  the  Chinese  tell  the  truth. 

29.  She  died  at  Berhn  Germany  June  5  1875. 

30.  John  the  beloved  disciple  lay  on  his  Master's  breast. 

31.  He  sat  in  a  huge  chair  of  oak  hewn  in  the  forest  of  the 

Hague. 

32.  Hamlet  exclaimed  What  a  piece  of  work  is  man. 

33.  The  books  greatly  to  my  disappointment  could  not  be  found. 

34.  If  the  war  continues  the  national  resources  will  be  exhausted. 

35.  Cromwell  made  one  revolution  and  Monk  made  another. 

36.  Semiramis  built  Babylon;  Dido  Carthage;   and  Romulus 

Rome. 

37.  Attention  activity  energy  and  determination  are  essential 

to  success. 

38.  She  was  a  gentle  refined  dignified  woman. 

39.  Some  one  justly  remarked  it  is  a  great  loss  to  lose  an  affliction. 

40.  Neednt. 

41 .  I  would  rather  be  right  said  Henry  Clay  than  be  President. 

42.  Reading  makes  a  full  man;  conference  a  ready  man;  writing 

an  exact  man. 

43.  Of  all  our  senses  sight  is  the  most  important. 

44.  Riches  honors  and  pleasures  are  fleeting. 

45.  Learn  patience  calmness. 

Copy  the  following,  using  the  proper  mark  of  punctuation 
in  each  of  the  places  indicated. 


PUNCTUATION  257 

I  mention  this  peaceful  spot  with  all  possible  laudx  for  it 
is  in  such  little  retired  Dutch  vallej^Sx  found  here  and  there 
embosomed  in  the  great  State  of  New  Yorkx  that  populatioux 
mannersx  and  customs  remain  fixedx  while  the  great  torrent 
of  migration  and  improvementx  which  is  making  such  incessant 
changes  in  other  parts  of  this  restless  countryx  sweeps  by  them 
unobservedx  They  are  like  those  little  nooks  of  still  water 
which  border  a  rapid  stream x  where  we  may  see  the  straw  and 
bubble  riding  quietly  at  anchorx  or  slowly  revolving  in  their 
mimic  harborx  undisturbed  by  the  rush  of  the  passing  currentx 
Though  many  years  have  elapsed  since  I  trod  the  drowsy  shades 
of  Sleepy  Hollowx  yet  I  question  whether  I  should  not  still 
find  the  same  trees  and  the  same  families  vegetating  in  its 
sheltered  bosomx 

He  looked  around  for  his  gunx  but  in  place  of  the  clean 
well-oiled  fowling-pieccx  he  found  an  old  firelock  lying  by  himx 
the  barrel  incrusted  with  rustx  the  lock  falling  off  and  the  stock 
worm-eatenx  He.  now  suspected  that  the  grave  roysters  of  the 
momitain  had  put  a  trick  upon  himx  andx  having  dosed  him 
with  liquorx  had  robbed  him  of  his  gunx  Wolf x  toox  had  dis- 
appearedx  but  he  might  have  strayed  away  after  a  squirrel 
or  partridgex  He  whistled  after  him  and  shouted  his  namcx  but 
all  in  vaiux  the  echoes  repeated  his  whistle  and  shout  but  no 
dog  was  to  be  seeux 

LESSON  71 

PUNCTUATION— Continued 

DASH 

The  dash  should  be  used  with  great  care.  It  is  used  too 
frequently  by  many  who  do- not  know  punctuation. 

1.  The  dash  is  used  to  mark  an  insertion  that  breaks  ab- 
ruptly the  grammatical  construction  or  the  continuity  of  thought 
as,  Rome — what  was  Rome?    Oh,  do  not — do  not  forsake  me! 

2.  The  dash  is  used  to  indicate  the  omission  of  letters, 
words,  or  figures;  as,  INIr.  B — •  lives  on  W — •  Street;  He  explained 
all — not  without  hesitation — of  his  business  activities:  The 
Chester  County  Teachers'  Institute  was  held  Sept.  20-25, 1914. 


258  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES   IN    ENGLISH 

3.  The  dash  is  used  after  subheads  and  extracts  from 
authors;  as, 

Corn — The  market  was  active,  and  prices  show  a  substan- 
tial rise. 

Men  may  rise  on  stepping-stones 

Of    their    dead    selves    to    higher    things — Tennj'son 

THE  PARENTHESIS  () 

1.  The  parentheses  are  used  to  set  off  inserted  expressions 
tliat  are  foreign  to  the  sentence,  but  connected  in  thought;  as. 
The  gentleman  from  Indiana  (Mr.  Reed)  was  elected  Speaker. 

2.  The  parentheses  are  used  to  inclose  figures  following 
an  expression  of  the  same  amount  in  words;  as,  Five  hundred 
dollars  ($500). 

BRACKETS 

1.  An  expression  other  than  that  of  the  speaker  or  writer 
is  inclosed  by  brackets;  such  as,  I  am  proud  of  my  records; 
I  defy  my  accusers.  [General  applause.]  He  won  the  prize. 
It  seems  impossible  to  me  according  to  the  report. 

EXERCISE  71 

Copy  the  following  sentences  and  insert  all  the  necessary 
marks  of  punctuation. 

1.  Every  prize  that  could  be  Avorth  a  woman's  having  and 

many    prizes   which    other   women    are    too    timid    to 
desire  lay  within  Zenobia  's  reach 

2.  Caesar  had  his  Brutus  Charles  I  his  Cromwell  and  George 

III  Treason 

3.  There  were  two  women  in  the  room  one  a  mere  girl  with 

fair  hair  and  white  face  the  other  a  woman  about  thirty 
years  old  with  coarse  features. 

4.  I  have  seen  hundreds  or  more  properly  thousands  in  one 

place 

5.  I  replied  to  his  question  without  asking  any  in  return  a 

practice  which  of  course  puts  an  end  to  talk 

6.  But  the  enemies  of  tyranny  their  path  leads  to  the  scaffold 


PUNCTUATION  259 

7.  The  fact  impressed  my   childish   fancy  very  much  fasci- 

nated it  indeed 

8.  They  are  independent  by   pleonasm  a  construction  used 

sometimes  for  rhetorical  effect 

9.  Perhaps  their  education  taught  them  something  something 

valuable  if  3'ou  will  but  one  thing  it  did  not  do 

10.  He  was  born  at  C 

1 1 .  Religion  who  can  doubt  it  is  the  noblest  theme  for  the  ex- 

ercise of  the  intellect 

12.  The  most  noted  kings  of  Israel  were  the  first  three  we  come 

to  Saul  David  and  Solomon 

13.  During  the  winter  of  1777  8  W  was  encamped  at  ^'alley 

Forge 

14.  Assyria  Greece  Rome  Carthage  what  are  they 

15.  Why  did   God  make  you  and  all  things  God  made  me 

and  all  things  for  his  own  glory 
10.  We  know  the  uses  and  sweet  they  are  of  adversity 

17.  I  have  only  poverty  and  rags 

18.  Was  there  ever  but  I  seem  to  boast 

19.  To  be  or  not  to  be  that  is  the  question 

20.  Kings  and  their  subjects  masters  and  their  slaves  the  rich 

and  the  poor  find  a  common  level  at  two  places  at  the 
cross  and  at  the  grave 

21.  The  smile  of  a  child  always  so  ready  when  there  is  no 

distress  and  so  soon  returning  when  that  distress  has 
passed  away  is  lik^  an  opening  of  the  sky  showing  heaven 
beyond 

22.  They  hastened  onward  these  three 

23.  He  had  no  malice  in  his  mind  no  ruffles  on  his  shirt 

24.  He  gave  me  a  ten  dollar  bill 

25.  He  built  a  three  story  house 

Cop.y  the  following  using  the  proper  marks  of  punctuation 
in  each  of  the  places  indicated. 

He  had  now  entered  the  skirts  of  thevillagCx  A  troop  of 
strange  children  ran  at  his  heelsx  hooting  after  him  and  point- 
ing at  his  gray  beardx  The  dogSx  toox  not  one  of  which  he  rec- 
ognized for  an  old  acquaintancex  barked  at  him  as  he  passedx 
The  very  village  was  alteredx  it  was  larger  and  more  populousx 
There  were  rows  of  houses  which  he  had  never  seen  before x 


260  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN   ENGLISH 

and  those  which  had  been  his  f  amihar  haunts  had  disappearedx 
Strange  names  were  over  the  doorsx  strange  faces  at  the  windowsx 
everything  was  strangex  His  mind  now  misgave  himx  he  began 
to  doubt  whether  both  he  and  the  w^orld  around  him  were  not 
bewitchedx  Surely  this  w^as  his  native  village  whichx  he  had 
left  but  the  day  beforex  There  stood  theKaatskillmountainsx 
there  ran  the  silver  Hudson  at  a  distance^  there  was  every  hill 
and  dale  precisely  as  it  had  always  beenx  Kip  was  sorely  per- 
plexedx  *'That  flagon  last  night"  thought  he  ''has  addled  my 
poor  head  sadly x" 

LESSON  72 

PUNCTUATION— Continued 

APOSTROPHE 

1.  The  apostrophe  is  used  to  denote  the  possessive  case  of 
nouns.     (See  page  145.) 

In  such  expressions  as  Adams  Express  Company,  Mechanics 
National  Bank,  the  apostrophe  is  not  used;  the  first  word  is  con- 
sidered an  adjective  and  not  a  noun  in  the  possessive  case. 

2.  The  apostrophe  is  used  to  indicate  the  omission  of  a 
letter  or  letters;  as,  aren't  for  are  not;  'tis  for  it  is. 

In  abbreviations  such  as  Atty.,  Bldg.,  Dept.,  IMdse.,  Prest., 
Supt.,  etc.,  the  apostrophe  is  not  used. 

3.  The  apostrophe  is  used  in  forming  the  plurals  of  letters 
and  figures;  as  m's,  x's,  50's. 

QUOTATION  MARKS 

1.  The  exact  words  of  a  writer  or  speaker  should  be  inclosed 
within  quotation  marks;  as,  Emerson  said,  *'  Hitch  your  wagon  to 
a  star. " 

If  a  quotation  consists  of  more  than  one  paragraph,  quo- 
tation marks  should  precede  each  paragraph  and  follow  the 
last  one. 


PUNCTUATION  261 

2.  A  quotation  witliin  a  quotation  should  be  inclosed  in 
single  quotation  marks;  as,  The  speaker  said,  ''We  have  a 
prophecy  in  the  words  of  Burns,  'When  man  to  man  the  world 
o'er  shall  brothers  be  for  aw  that.'" 

3.  Words  or  expressions  used  in  unusual  meaning  should 
be  inclosed  within  quotation  marks;  as,  After  the  conversation 
his  "hat  was  in  the  ring. " 

4.  The  titles  of  books,  articles,  etc.,  used  in  a  sentence, 
should  be  inclosed  within  quotation  marks;  as,  I  bought  a  copy 
of  Emerson's  "American  Scholar." 

5.  Quotation  marks  are  used  to  call  special  attention  to 
words  or  expressions;  as.  The  expression  "how  many"  should 
be  set  in  caps. 

6.  If  the  name  of  the  author  follows  a  quotation,  the  quo- 
tation marks  may  be  omitted;  as.  It  is  not  work  that  kills  men; 
it  is  worry — Beecher. 

7.  The  period,  comma,  and  semicolon  are  usually  placed 
within  the  quotation  marks  used  to  inclose  any  expressions 
followed  by  any  one  of  these  marks  of  punctuation;  as,  "Study 
your  lesson, "  he  said.     He  said,  "  Study  your  lesson. " 

If  the  interrogation  point  or  exclamation  point  belong  to 
the  quoted  part  only  of  a  sentence,  they  should  be  inclosed  with- 
in the  quotation  marks;  as.  The  teacher  asked,  "Have  you 
studied  your  lesson?  " 

If  the  interrogation  point  and  exclamation  point  belong  to 
the  whole  sentence  they  are  not  inclosed  within  the  quotation 
marks;  as,  Did  the  teacher  ask,  "  Have  you  studied  your  lesson"? 

EXERCISE  72 

Copy  and  punctuate  the  following  sentences. 

1.  Henry  IV  of  the  House  of  Bourbon  was  very  wise  in  coun- 

cil simple  in  manners  and  chivalric  in  the  field 

2.  Columbus    crossed    the    Atlantic    with    ninety    men    and 

landed  at  San  Salvador 


262  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

3.  A  young  farmer  recently  l:)ought  a  yoke  of  oxen  six  cows 

and  a  horse 

4.  America  has  furnished  to  the  world  tobacco  the  potato 

and  Indian  corn 

5.  Cotton  is  raised  in  Egypt  India  and  the  United  States 

6.  The  spirit  of  true  religion  is  social  kind  and  cheerful 

7.  All  the  kings  of  Egypt  are  called  in  Scripture  Pharaoh 

8.  The  bamboo  furnishes  to  the  native  of  China  shade  food 

houses  weapons  and  clothing 

9.  The  balloon  shooting  swiftly  into  the  clouds  was  soon  lost 

to  sight 

10.  The  sun  rising  dispelled  the  mists 

11.  The  thief  being  detected  surrendered  to  the  officer 

12.  A   shrug   of    the   shoulders   translated    into    words    loses 

much  force 

13.  Virtue  diligence  and  industry  joined  with  good  temper  and 

prudence  must  ever  be  the  surest  means  of  prosperity 

14.  Edward  Wingfield  an  avaricious  and  unprincipled  man  was 

the  first  president  of  the  Jamestown  colony 

15.  Towers  are  measured  by  their  shadows  and  great  men  by 

their  calumniators 

16.  Worth  makes  the  man  and  want  of  it  the  fellow 

17.  How  poor  how  rich  how  abject  how  august  how  wonderful 

is  man 

18.  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  attempting  to  recross  the  Atlantic  in 

his  little  vessel  the  Squirrel  w^ent  clown  in  mid-ocean 

19.  The  morn  in  russet  mantle  clad  walks  o'er  the  dew  of  3^on 

High  eastern  hill 

20.  The  fly  sat  upon  the  axle  of  a  chariot-wheel  and  said  What 

a  dust  do  I  raise 

21.  Strike  till  the  last  armed  foe  expires 

22.  Thy  mercy  O  Lord  is  in  the  heavens  and  tin-  faithfulness 

reacheth  unto  the  clouds 

23.  The  clouds  poured  out  water  the  skies  sent  out  a  sound  the 

voice  of  thy  thunder  was  in  the  heaven 

24.  The  heavens  declare  his  righteousness  and  all  the  j^eople  see 

his  glory 

25.  The  verdant  lawn  the  shady  grove  the  variegated  landscape 

the  boundless  ocean  and  the  starry  firmament  are  beau- 
tiful and  magnificent  objects 


PUNCTUATION  263 

2G.  Liquids    when    acted    upon    ])y    gravity    press    downward 
upward  and  sidewa^^s 

27.  You  will  find  that  tlie  state  of  Kansas  occupies  very  near- 

ly the  middle  spot  of  North  America  being  equally  dis- 
tant from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  east  and  Pacific 
Ocean  on  the  west  from  the  frozen  waters  of  Hudson's 
Bay  on  the  north  and  the  tepid  gulf  stream  on  the  south 

28.  Michael  Angelo  used  to  say  Trifles  make  perfection  and 

perfection  is  no  trifle 

29.  The  surrender  of  Lee  ended  the  war  between  the  North 

and  South  and  his  soldiers  turned  homeward  no  longer 
Confederate  soldiers  but  American  citizens 

30.  Her  favorite  maxim  was  Wilful  waste  makes  woeful  want 
3L  Change  Where  there's  a  will  there's   a  Avay   to   Where 

there  is  a  will  you  can  find  a  way 

32.  Length  of  days  in  her  right  hand  and  in  her  left  hand 

riches  and  honor 

33.  When  thou  liest  do^vn  thou  shalt  not  be  afraid  yea  thou 

shalt  lie  down  and  thy  sleep  shall  be  sweet 

34.  My  son  forget  not  my  law  but  let  thine  heart  keep  my 

commandments 

35.  The   prodigal   robs   his   heirs   the   miser   robs   himself 

36.  So  sad  and  dark  a  story  is  scarcely  to  be  found  in  any 

w^ork  of  fiction  and  we  are  little  disposed  to  envy  the 
moralist  who  can  read  it  without  being  softened 

37.  Caesar  was  dead  the  soldiers  were  dispersed  all  Rome  was 

in  confusion 

38.  Can  great  truths  after  having  been  once  developed  die 

39.  Let  us  send  light  and  jo}^  if  we  can  to  every  one  around  us 

40.  There  w^here  knowledge  ceases  faith  should  strongest  prove 
4L  Christianity  in  the  highest  sense  is  the  religion  of  sorrow 

42.  Thou  knowest  come  what  may  that  the  light  of  truth  can 

not  be  put  out 

43.  Patrick  Henry  commenced  by  saying  It  is  natural  to  man 

to  indulge  in  the  illusions  of  hope 

44.  Wirt  writes  that  as  a  statesman  Alexander  Hamilton  was 

distinguished  for  the  great  extent  of  his  views 

45.  All  cannot  be  great  and  nobody  may  reasonably  expect 

all  the  world  to  be  engaged   with  lauding  his  merits 

46.  Idleness  is  the  parent  of  every  vice  but  well  directed  ac- 

tivity is  the  source  of  every  laudable  pursuit  and  worldly 
attainment 


264  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

47.  The  spirit  of  true  religion  inspires  magnanimity  and  mag- 

nanimity always  breathes  gentleness 

48.  An  entire  retreat  from  worldly  affairs  is  not  what  religion 

requires  nor  does  it  even  enjoin  a  long  retreat  from  them 

49.  Religion  must  be  the  spirit  of  every  hour  but  it  cannot  lie 

the  meditation  of  every  hour 

50.  A  clownish  air  is  but  a  small  defect  yet  is  enough  to  make 

a  man  disagreeable 

51.  Endless  existence  is  a  great  truth  but  an  immortality  of 

pure  affections  and  holy  employment  is  far  greater 

52.  Do  not  think  yourself  perfect  for  imperfection  is  natural 

to  humanity 

53.  Pope  had  perhaps  the   judgment  of  Dryden  but  Dry  den 

certainly  wanted  the  diligence  of  Pope 

54.  Life  is  felt  to  be  a  great  and  gracious  boon  by  all  who 

enjoy  its  liglit  and  this  is  not  too  much  felt 

55.  Never  value  yourself  upon  your  fortune  for  this  is  a  sign 

of  a  weak  mind 

56.  Virtue  is  a  real  honor  whereas  all  other  distinctions  are 

merely  titular 

57.  Reasoning   implies  doubt   and  uncertainty  and  therefore 

God  does  not  reason 

58.  Men  are  not  to  be  judged  by  their  looks  habits  and  ap- 

pearances but  by  the  character  of  their  lives  and  con- 
versations and  by  their  works 

59.  The  noblest  prophets  and  apostles  have  been  children  once 

lisping   the   speech    laughing    the    laugh   thinking   the 
thought  of  boyhood 
GO.  Prosperity  is  naturally  though  not  necessarily  attached  to 
virtue  and  merit  adversity  to  vice  and  foll}^ 

61.  Everything  that  happens  is  both  a  cause  and  an  effect 

being  the  effect  of  what  goes  before  and  the  cause  of 
what  follows 

62.  Argument  as  usually  managed  is  the  worst  sort  of  con- 

versation as  it  is  generally  in  books  the  worst  sort  of 
reading 

63.  It  is  the  first  point  of  wisdom  to  ward  off  evils  the  second 

to  make  them  beneficial 

64.  Employ  your  time  w^ell  if  j^ou  mean  to  gain  leisure  and 

since  you  are  not  sure  of  a  minute  throw  not  away  an 
hour 


PUNCTUATION  265 

65.  Stones  grow  veg('tii])l(^s   j2,row  aiul  live  animals  grow  live 

and  feel 

66.  Everything  grows  old  ev(M-vthing  passes  awa}'  ever3^thing 

disappears 

67.  I  have  seen  charity  (If  charity  it  may  be  called)  insulted 

with  an  air  of  pity 

68.  Know  then  this  truth  enough  for  man   to  know  Virtue 

alone  is  happiness  below 

69.  Apply  yourself  to  study  it  will  re])ound  to  your  house 

70.  As  we  perceive  the  shadow  to  have  moved  along  the  dial 

but  do  not  perceive  it  moving  and  it  appears  that  the 
grass  has  grown  though  nobody  saw  it  grow  so  the 
advance  we  make  in  knowledge  as  they  consist  in  such 
insensible  steps  are  only  perceivable   })y  the  distance 

71.  To  read  without  reflecting  says  Burke  is  like  eating  with- 

out digesting 

72.  He  rushed  amidst  them  with  his  sword  dra\Mi  he  threw 

them  into  confusion  he  pushed  his  advantage  and  he 
obtained  a  complete  victory 


ion 


Copy  the  following  using  the  proper  marks  of  punctuati 
in  each  of  the  places  indicated. 

Rip  bethought  himself  a  momentx  mid  inquiredx  ><Where^s 
Nicholas  Vedderx^ 

There  was  a  silence  for  a  little  whilcx  when  an  old  man  re- 
pliedx  in  a  thin  piping  voiccx  >^Nicholas  Vedderx  whyx  he  is 
dead  and  gone  these  eighteen  yearsx  There  was  a  wooden  tomb- 
stone in  the  churchyard  that  used  to  tell  all  about  himx  but 
that^^s  rotten  and  gone  toox^ 

><Where><s  Brom  Dutcherx^ 

>*^Ohx  he  went  off  to  the  army  in  the  beginning  of  the  warx 
some  say  he  w^as  killed  at  tiie  storming  of  Stony  Point x  others 
say  he  was  drowned  in  a  squall  at  the  foot  of  Anthony >^s  Noscx 
I  don^t  knowx  he  never  came  back  agauix^ 

^Where^s  ^^an  Bummelx  the  schoolmasterx^ 

^He  went  off  to  the  wars  toox  w^as  a  great  militia  generalx 
and  is  now  in  congressx^ 

Rip^s  heart  died  away  at  hearing  of  these  sad  changes  in 
his  home  and  friendsx  and  finding  himself  thus  alone  in  the 
worldx  Every  answer  puzzled  him  toox  by  treating  of  such 


266  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES   IN   ENGLISH 

enormous  lapses  of  timex  and  of  matters  which  he  could  not 
understandx  warx  congressx  Stony  Pointx  he  had  no  courage 
to  ask  after  any  more  friendsx  but  cried  out  in  despairx  ^Does 
nobody  here  know  Rip  Van  Wmklcx^ 

^Ohx  Rip  Van  Winklcx^  exclaimed  two  or  threcx  ^Ohx 
to  be  surcx  that^s  Rip  Van  Winkle  yonderx  leaning  against 
the  treex^ 

Copy  the  following,  and  place  marks  of  punctuation  where 
needed. 

After  much  consideration  and  a  careful  examination  of 
your  latest  work  Rowe's  Bookkeeping  and  Accountancy  we 
decided  to  introduce  it  here  The  results  obtained  thus  far  fully 
justify  our  decision 

Pedagogically  we  consider  the  plan  of  the  work  excellent 
The  introduction  at  the  outset  of  the  principal  books  of  record 
not  only  gives  added  interest  but  also  results  in  a  material 
saving  of  time  The  systematic  arrangement  of  the  transactions 
which  by  the  way  are  of  a  thoroughly  practical  nature  the  con- 
tinual review  by  means  of  questions  with  explanatory  references 
the  ample  supplementary  work  provided  practically  insure 
good  results  The  three  syllabuses'  w^iich  give  the  teacher  a 
choice  of  three  methods  of  presentation  make  it  readily  adapt- 
able to  varying  conditions  met  in  day  and  night  schools 

Last  but  not  least  the  subject  being  taken  up  from  the 
viewpoint  of  the  accountant  will  make  the  step  to  higher  account- 
ing a  natural  one  and  will  undoubtedly  arouse  a  desire  on  the 
part  of  the  student  to  pursue  the  study  of  bookkeeping  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  usual  course. 

I  believe  that  in  Bookkeeping  and  Accountancy  you  are 
putting  out  a  work  that  bears  the  stamp  of  merit  and  I  heartih' 
recommend  it 

Copy  the  following,  using  the  proper  marks  of  pimctuation 
in  each  of  the  places  indicated. 

His  schoolhouse  was  a  low  building  of  one  large  roomx 
rudely  constructed  of  logSx  the  windows  partly  glazed  and  partly 
patched  with  leaves  of  old  copy-booksx  It  was  most  ingeniously 
secured  at  vacant  hours  by  a  ^vithe  twisted  in  the  handle  of  the 
door  and  stakes  set  against  the  window  shuttersx  so  thatx 


t^UNCTUATION  .  267 

though  a  thief  might  get  in  with  perfect  eascx  he  would  find 
some  embarrassment  in  getting  outx  an  idea  most  probably 
borrowed  by  the  architectx  Yost  Van  Houtenxfrom  the  mystery 
of  an  eel  potx  The  schoolhouse  stood  in  a  rather  lonely  but 
pleasant  situation  just  at  the  foot  of  a  woody  hillx  Vs'lth  a  brook 
I'unning  close  byx  and  a  formidable  birch  tree  growing  at  one 
end  of  it  X  From  hence  the  low  murmur  of  his  pupils^  voices 
conning  over  their  lessons  might  be  heard  in  a  drowsy  summer^s 
dayx  like  the  hum  of  a  beexhivex  interrupted  now  and  then 
by  the  authoritative  voice  of  the  master  in  the  tone  of  menace 
or  commandx  orx  peradventurcx  by  the  appalling  sound  of 
the  birchx  as  he  urged  some  tardy  loiterer  along  the  flowery 
path  of  knowdeclgCx  Truth  to  sayx  he  was  a  conscientious  manx 
and  ever  bore  in  mind  the  golden  maxim x  ^Spare  the  rod  and 
spoil  the  childx^  Ichabod  Crane^s  scholars  certainly  were  not 
spoiledx 

Copy  and  punctuate  the  following. 

My  attention  has  been  recently  directed  to  unvaccinated 
persons  attending  school  and  for  your  information  I  am  en- 
closing the  official  form  of  certificate  furnished  by  the  Bureau  of 
Health  which  can  be  obtained  by  applying  in  person  or  by  mes- 
senger at  Room  712  City  Hall  between  the  hours  of  9  a  m  and 
4pm  and  Saturdays  9  a  m  to  12  m 

A  representative  of  the  Bureau  of  Health  will  call  at  your 
school  at  an  early  date  to  inspect  your  school  register 

The  folloAving  is  an  extract  from  the  Act  of*  Assembly 
governing  all  public  private  parochial  Sunday  and  other  schools 

Act  of  Assembly  approved  the  18th  day  of  June  1895 

''To  provide  for  the  more  effectual  protection  of  the  pubhc 
health  in  the  several  municipalities  of  this  Commonwealth 

Section  12  All  principals  or  other  persons  in  charge  of 
schools  as  aforesaid  are  hereby  required  to  refuse  the  admission  of 
any  child  to  the  schools  in  their  charge  or  supervision  except 
upon  a  certificate  signed  by  a  phj'sician  setting  forth  that  such 
child  has  been  successfully  vaccinated  or  that  it  has  previously 
had  smallpox 

Section  13  The  health  authorities  of  said  municipalities 
shall  furnish  the  principal  or  other  persons  in  charge  of  said 
schools  and  to  physicians  the  necessar}^  certificates  or  blanks 


268  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES   IN   ENGLISH 

for  tlie  uses  and  purposes  as  set  forth  and  required  in  Sections 
111  and  12  of  this  Act  The  registry  of  said  schools  shall  exhibit 
the  names  and  residences  of  all  children  or  persons  admitted  or 
rejected  for  reasons  set  forth  in  this  act  and  said  registry  shall 
be  open  at  all  times  to  the  inspection  of  the  health  authorities 

Section  21  Any  physician  undertaker  principal  of  school 
superintendent  of  Sunday  School  sexton  janitor  head  of  family 
or  any  other  person  or  persons  named  in  this  Act  who  shall 
fail  neglect  or  reruse  to  comply  with  or  who  shall  violate  any  of 
the  i:irovisions  or  reciuirements  of  this  act  shall  for  every  such 
offense  upon  conviction  thereof  before  any  Mayor  Burgess 
Alderman  Police  Magistrate  or  Justice  of  the  Peace  of  the  Mu- 
nicipality in  which  such  offense  was  committed  be  liable  to  fine 
or  penalty  therefor  of  not  less  than  five  dollars  nor  more  than 
one  hundred  dollars  w^iich  said  fines  or  penalties  shall  be  paid 
into  the  treasury  of  said  municipality  and  in  default  of  payment 
thereof  such  person  or  persons  so  convicted  shall  undergo  im- 
prisonment in  the  jail  of  the  proper  county  for  a  period  not 
exceeding  sixty  days" 

Copy  the  following  and  place  marks  of  punctuation  where 
needed. 

We  have  been  using  your  Bookkeeping  and  Accountancy- 
in  our  school  during  the  past  year  and  I  wish  to  add  my  tes- 
timony to  the  high-grade  character  of  this  publication  We  are 
getting  results  that  I  feel  no  commercial  school  could  possi])ly 
get  from  any  of  the  old  publications 

I  consider  your  work  the  most  valuable  ever  contributed 
to  the  literature  of  commercial  education  It  is  a  long  step  in 
advance  of  anything  that  has  been  heretofore  attempted  and 
those  who  know  the  difference  between  accountancy  and  ele- 
mentary bookkeeping  cannot  fail  to  appreciate  the  merit  of 
your  work 

It  is  a  mistake  to  think  that  the  work  is  too  difficult  or 
too  far  advanced  for  those  who  attend  a  business  college  We 
find  that  even  grammar  school  graduates  are  capable  of  com- 
prehending the  work  and  that  they  become  intensely  interested 
At  the  same  time  the  work  is  of  such  an  analytical  character  that 
it  will  interest  a  college  graduate  and  give  him  all  he  wants  to  do 


PUNCTUATION  269 

Your  work  is  one  that  I  ha\'e  been  looking  for  for  the  past 
seven  j'ears  I  have  always  felt  that  there  was  a  great  waste  of 
time  in  getting  an  understanding  of  the  principles  and  clas- 
sification of  accounts  through  tl  e  books  published  Happily 
your  work  bridges  the  gap  which  was  left  betAveen  true  account- 
ancy and  the  incomplete  and  imperfect  sj-stems  presented  by 
the  old  books 

I  cannot  understand  how  any  live  school  man  can  fail 
to  appreciate  3'our  work 

Copy  and  punctuate  the  following: 

Would  you  like  to  receive  a  copy  of  a  little  book  about 
roses  for  1914 

This  years  edition  just  i)ublished  is  I  think  the  richest 
and  most  beautiful  I  have  yet  sent  out  The  cover  especially 
is  uniquely  beautiful  a  gem  of  the  embossers  art  And  its 
beauty  isnt  only  skin  deep  either 

You  were  formerly  a  valued  customer  and  while  I  have 
not  heard  from  you  of  late  years  I  have  continued  to  cast 
bread  upon  the  waters  in  the  shape  of  my  aimual  booklets 
I  would  like  to  contmue  to  do  so  but  this  years  edition  is  too 
costly  to  send  where  it  may  not  be  appreciated  where  it  may 
not  bring  back  material  results 

And  yet  if  you  expect  to  purchase  111  gladly  mail  you  a 
copy  or  if  j^ou  wish  to  absolve  yourself  from  even  this  implied 
promise  send  ten  cents  which  will  help  to  defray  the  cost  And 
you  neednt  write  a  letter  either  simply  return  tl  is  one  if 
your  address  as  above  is  correct  with  a  dime  or  postage  stamj  s 

Is  it  Good-bye  I  hope  not 

Copy  and  punctuate  the  following. 

I  began  the  use  of  Rowe's  Bookkeeping  and  Accountancy 
as  you  know  last  3'ear  I  was  pleased  with  it  from  the  start  and 
the  further  I  go  with  it  the  more  enthusiastic  I  become  It  cer- 
tainly is  far  and  away  ahead  of  anything  I  have  ever  seen  and  I 
have  taught  from  five  different  systeir  s  and  thoroughly  examined 
several  others 

I  fully  demonstrated  last  year  that  Bookkeeping  and  Ac- 
countancy may  be  satisfactorily  taught  to  the  high  school  fresh- 


270  LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

man  that  the  principles  of  accountancy  are  as  easily  grasped 
by  the  learner  as  the  bookkeeping  we  have  taught  so  long  and 
are  still  teaching  The  principles  developed  in  Dr.  Rowe  's  work 
are  more  easily  taught  and  more  readily  learned  than  the  book- 
keeping and  the  so-called  accountancy  of  any  other  system 
I  have  ever  used  and  the  student  really  has  something  worth 
while  when  he  gets  it 

It  is  the  most  educational  of  systems  as  well  as  the  most 
practical  it  really  develops  It  gives  a  big  foundation  on  which 
to  build  and  it  broadens  the  mind  and  the  \\e\v  instead  of  nar- 
rowing them  The  pupil  gets  something  he  will  not  need  to  un- 
learn at  a  later  time  no  matter  how  big  a  proposition  confronts 
him  or  how  big  the  job  may  be  which  he  tackles 

In  many  respects  the  work  is  remarkable  for  its  simplicity 
and  for  the  good  common  sense  displayed  in  its  arrangement 
It  is  right  pedagogically  psychologically  and  from  a  practical 
viewpoint 

You  will  soon  hear  the  song  of  the  imitators  and  see  their 
handiwork  again  But  I  started  out  to  thank  you  for  the  Cost 
Accountancy  Set  Excuse  this  long  prelude  and  accept  my  ex- 
pressions of  appreciation  for  wiiat  they  are  worth 

Copy  and  punctuate  the  following : 

We  are  in  receipt  of  3^our  favor  of  Apr.  30th  asking  for  an 
opinion  relative  to  your  publications  It  affords  us  pleasure  to 
say  that  we  have  been  using  your  Bookkeepers  and  Office 
Practice  continuously  for  seven  years  and  in  our  night  classes 
Commercial  and  Industrial  Bookkeeping  during  the  past  year 

Have  also  used  Listers  Writing  Lessons  That  Teach  for 
a  dozen  years  or  more  and  in  justice  to  your  company  will  say 
that  we  have  as  yet  been  unable  to  find  texts  of  a  similar  char- 
acter that  are  anywhere  equal  to  those  from  your  Publishing 
House 

In  addition  to  our  experience  with  them  in  connection 
with  this  school  we  had  the  pleasure  of  teaching  those  enumer- 
ated above  in  a  New  York  school  for  three  years  and  know  where- 
of we  speak  If  there  are  any  other  texts  on  the  market  of  equal 
educational  value  we  have  not  made  their  acquaintance 

Wishing  you  continued  success  throughout  the  coming 
years  we  remain 


PUNCTUATION  271 

Copy  and  punctuate  the  following : 

Fourscore  and  seven  years  ago  our  fathers  brought  forth 
upon  this  continent  a  new  nation  conceived  in  liberty  and  ded- 
icated to  the  proposition  that  all  men  are  created  equal  Now 
we  are  engaged  in  a  great  civil  war  testing  whether  that  nation 
or  any  nation  so  conceived  and  so  dedicated  can  long  endure 
We  are  met  on  a  great  battle-field  of  that  war  We  have  come 
to  dedicate  a  portion  of  that  field  as  a  final  resting  place  for 
those  who  here  gave  their  lives  that  that  nation  might  live  It 
is  altogether  fitting  and  proper  that  we  should  do  this  But  in  a 
larger  sense  we  caimot  dedicate  we  cannot  consecrate  we  cannot 
hallow  this  ground  The  brave  men  living  and  dead  who  strug- 
gled here  have  consecrated  it  far  above  our  power  to  add  or 
detract  The  world  will  little  note  nor  long  remember  what  we 
say  here  but  it  can  never  forget  what  they  did  here  It  is  for 
us  the  living  rather  to  be  dedicated  here  to  the  unfinished  work 
which  they  who  fouglit  here  have  thus  far  so  nobly  advanced 
It  is  rather  for  us  to  be  here  dedicated  to  the  great  task  remain- 
ing before  us  that  from  these  honored  dead  we  take  increased 
devotion  to  that  cause  for  which  they  gave  the  last  full  measure 
of  devotion  that  we  here  highly  resolve  that  these  dead  shall 
not  have  died  in  vain  that  this  nation  under  God  shall  have  a 
new  birth  of  freedom  and  that  government  of  the  people  by 
the  people  and  for  the  people  shall  not  perish  from  the  earth — ■ 
Lincoln. 

LESSON  73 

PUNCTUATION— Continued 

HYPHEN  (-) 

The  h^'phen  is  used  to  separate  S3'llables  (ad-mis-si-ble), 
and  to  mark  the  division  of  a  word  at  the  end  of  a  line. 

Words  denoting  parts  of  one  hundred,  should  be  connected 
by  the  hyphen  (twenty-five,  sixty-six,  etc.). 

A  hyphen  should  not  be  used  at  the  beginning  of  a  line  to 
indicate  that  a  word  has  been  divided  between  two  lines. 

The  hyphen  is  used  to  compound  words  (vice-president). 

The  tendency  at  the  present  time  is  to  omit  the  hyphen 
whenever  permissible. 


272  LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 

The  student  should  be  famiUar  with  the  following  rules  for 
compounds. 

1.  A  word  formed  by  using  '^re," ''over, " ''under, " '^  sub," 
"in,"  ''out,"  "up,"  "down,"  and  similar  prefixes  should  be 
written  as  one  word;  as,  reenter,  overtake,  undermine,  subdivide, 
indoor,  outgo,  uptown,  do^vnstairs. 

Good  usage  gives  preference  to  dropping  the  hyphen  when 
the  prefix  "re"  or  "co"  is  used  with  words  beginning  with  "e" 
or  "  o  " ;  as,  reelect,  cooperate. 

2.  When  prefixes  or  suffixes  of  one  syllable  are  given  to 
"man,"  "men,"  "maker,"  "keeper,"  "under,"  "seeker," 
"holder, ""yard, "''master,"  "owner,"  "house,"  and  "room," 
the  hyphen  should  not  be  used;  as,  warehouse,  housekeeper, 
roommate. 

3.  When  the  prefix  "inter"  or  "trans"  is  used,  the  word  is 
most  frequently  written  without  the  hyphen;  as,  intercollegiate, 
transatlantic. 

If  words  like  trans- Atlantic,  trans-Missouri,  and  trans- 
Ohio  are  hyphenized,  the  proper  nouns  should  be  capitalized. 

4.  If  "all"  is  compounded  with  another  word  without  the 
hyphen,  it  drops  one  "1, "  as;  almighty,  always. 

If  the  hyphen  is  used  the  "  1 "  is  nob  dropped ;  as,  all-impor- 
tant, all-wise.     "All  right"  should  not  be  written  "alright." 

5.  Compound  words  with  the  prefixes  "ante,"  "anti," 
"post,"  "semi,"  "self,"  are  hyphenized;  as,  semi-annual,  self- 
made,  post-dated.     Postscript  is  written  as  one  word. 

6.  When  two  or  more  words  are  used  to  form  a  modifier, 
they  should  be  joined  with  the  hyphen;  as,  two-story  house, 
up-to-date  school,  cut-and-dried  argument,  three-foot  rule, 
25-yard  line. 

The  word  "fold"  retains  the  hyphen  only  in  words  over 
ten;  as,  tenfold,  threefold,  twenty-fold. 

If  a  noun  in  the  possessive  case  is  used  in  compound,  the 
s"  is  retained;  as,  camel's-hair-brush. 


i(  >_  fj 


PUNCTUATION  273 

SYLLABICATION 

To  the  typist,  especially,  correct  syllabication  is  essential. 

Correct  syllabication  depends  on  a  knowledge  of  pronun- 
ciation. 

A  syllable  is  a  word,  or  a  part  of  a  word,  pronounced  by  a 
single  vocal  impulse;  as,  yes,  i-o-ta. 

1.  If  you  are  writing  on  a  machine,  never  divide  a  word  in 
such  a  manner  that  you  carry  but  two  letters  to  the  next  line; 
as,  walk-ed.  The  hyphen  occupies  one  space  and  the  paper 
can  be  moved  sufficiently  in  the  machine  to  make  room  for  the 
other  letter. 

2.  '^J, "  or  '^q"  should  not  end  a  syllable;  as,  pre-judice, 
ma-jesty,  li-quefy. 

3.  *'X"  should  end  the  syllable;  as,  complex-ion,  anx-ious, 
vex-ation. 

4.  ''Er, ''  when  suffixed  to  a  word  ending  with  a  consonant 
or  a  silent  ''e'^  is  always  made  a  syllable;  as,  mak-er,  command- 
er, back-er.  ''Or"  is  not  so  separated;  as,  gover-nor,  opera-tor, 
confes-sor. 

5.  Make  the  division  where  ''i"  sounds  "y";  as,  gen-ius, 
conven-ient,  pavil-ion;  except,  where  double  letters  precede;  as, 
ruf-fian,  rebel-lion. 

6.  Make  the  division  between  double  consonants  or  double 
vowels  when  accented  separately;  as,  dif-fer,  remit-tance; 
except  where  a  syllable  is  suffixed  to  a  word  ending  with  double 
consonants;  as,  fall-ing. 

7.  If  a  short  vowel  is  accented,  make  the  division  after  the 
following  consonant;  as,  sub-urb,  mus-ket;  except  when  the 
following  letters  produce  the  sound  ''sh;"  as,  offi-cial,  vi-sion. 
If  a  short  vowel  is  unaccented,  make  the  division  following  it; 
as,  di-ploma,  pedi-gree. 

8.  If  two  vowels  coming  together  are  sounded  separately, 
make  the  division  between  them;  as,  sci-ence,  ortho-epy. 


274 


LESSONS   AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 


9 .  Divide  where  a  combination  of  letters  produces  the  sound 
of  '^sh,"  ''ch"  or  ''j ";  as,  con-science,  conta-gious,  sol-dier. 

10.  All  terminations  beginning  with  a  vowel  suffixed  to  a 
word  ending  with  a  consonant  or  silent ''  e  "  should  be  separated 
from  the  word  if  the  position  of  the  accent  and  the  pronunci- 
ation of  the  primitive  word  remain  unchanged;  as,  depend- 
ence,  assist-ant,   observ-ance. 

11.  Make  the  division  between  compound  words;  as,  man-* 
kind,  horse-shoe. 

The  foregoing  rules  are  helpful  but  not  exhaustive.  The 
student  should  use  the  dictionary  when  in  doubt. 

EXERCISE  73 

Separate  the  following  words  into  syllables,  and  quote  the 
rule  that  applies  to  each. 


apostasy 

dancing 

maneuver 

aluminum 

enhancing 

malicious 

allegiance 

England 

seller 

abundance 

ecstasy 

secrecy 

agricultural 

earnings 

satchel 

after 

earnest 

salmon 

advantage 

intrepidity 

separate 

admissible 

insurance 

servant 

active 

inning 

service 

division 

legislation 

skaguay 

director 

mosquitoes 

special 

deficit 

marvelous 

Separate  the  following  words  into  syllables.  Some  of  them 
are  exceptions  to  the  rules  given.  When  in  doubt,  consult  the 
dictionarv. 


auspices 

attributed 

ascendency 

ascendant 

business 

burglar 

Britannia 


brigade 

billiard 

bicycle 

benefited 

beleaguered 

bazaar 

battalion 


councilor 

correspondent 

conferee 

chancellor 

carom 

capture 

extraordinary 


- 

PUNCTUATION 

expression 

mustache 

syndicate 

Eskimo 

muskelounge 

subpoena 

future 

mountain 

traveler 

furniture 

neglected 

tyranny 

fountain 

necessary 

tendency 

fortune 

outrageous 

usually 

fortunate 

originate 

unexceptional 

former 

opponents 

vengeance 

frontier 

odd-fellows 

veranda 

father 

progress 

voluminous 

farmer 

produce  (verb) 

Wednesday 

gypsy 

produce  (noun) 

William 

guerrillas 

process 

willing 

governor 

premium 

woman 

gimlet 

prelate 

wagon 

hymeneal 

plaintiff 

water 

Hindoo 

picture 

wakeful 

harangue 

reference 

willful 

halloo 

rebellion 
stories 

LESSON  74 

weariness 

275 


PUNCTUATION— Continued 


DEGREES,  AND  HONORARY  TITLES 


A.  B.  or  B.  A. 

Bachelor  of  Arts 

A.  M.  or  M.  A. 

Master  of  Arts 

Ph.  B. 

Bachelor  of  Philosophy 

Dr. 

Scholastic  degree 

Esq. 

Esquire 

Gov. 

Governor 

Hon. 

Honorable 

Mr. 

Mister 

Mrs. 

Title  given  a  married  woman 

Messrs. 

Messieurs  or  Gentlemen 

Ph.D. 

Doctor  of  Philosophy 

Prof. 

Professor 

Rev. 

Title  given  to  clergymen 

LL.D. 

Doctor  of  Laws 

276 


LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES    IN    ENGLISH 


STATES 

Ala. 

Alabama 

Miss. 

Mississippi 

Alaska 

Alaska 

Mo. 

Missouri 

Territory 

Mont. 

Montana 

Ariz. 

Arizona 

Neb. 

Nebraska 

Ark. 

Arkansas 

N.  H. 

New  Hampshire 

Cal.      \ 

California 

N.J. 

New  Jersey 

Calif.  / 

V.yCA'iJ.J.  V^JL  A.XXCA/ 

N.  Mex. 

New  Mexico 

Colo.    \ 

Colorado 

N.  Y. 

New  York 

Col.     J 

N.  C. 

North  Carolina 

Conn. 

Connecticut 

N.  Dak. 

North  Dakota 

Del. 

Delaware 

Okla. 

Oklahoma 

D.  C. 

District  of 

Ore.,      \ 
Oreg.     / 

Columbia 

Oregon 

Fla. 

Florida 

Pa. 

Pennsylvania 

Ga. 

Georgia 

P.  I. 

Philippine 

Hawaii 

Hawaii 

Islands 

Territory 

P.P. 

Porto  Rico 

111. 

Illinois 

R.I. 

Rhode  Island 

Ind. 

Indiana 

S.  C. 

South  Carolina 

Kan.       1 

Kansas 

S.  Dak. 

South  Dakota 

Kans.     j 

Tenn. 

Tennessee 

Ky. 

Kentucky 

Tex. 

Texas 

La. 

Louisiana 

Vt. 

Vermont 

Me. 

Maine 

Va. 

Virginia 

Md. 

Maryland 

Wash. 

Washington 

Mass. 

Massachusetts 

W.  Va. 

West  Virginia 

Mich. 

Michigan 

Wis. 

Wisconsin 

Minn. 

Minnesota 

Wyo. 

Wyoming 

The  names  of  cities  should  not  be  abbreviated. 

The  teacher  should  dictate  the  unabbreviateel  forms  given 
above  and  have  the  student  write  the  correct  abbreviation 
for  each. 


PUNCTUATION 

2* 

COMMON  ABBREVIATIONS 

AND  COMMERCIAL  SIGNS 

acct. 

account 

cwt. 

hundredweight 

a.  m. 

before  noon 

c/o 

care  of 

amt. 

amount 

c,  ^ 

cents 

asst. 

assistant 

C.  A. 

Chartered 

atty. 

attorney 

Accountant 

Ave. 

Avenue 

C.  E. 

Civil  Engineer 

agt. 

agent 

c.a.f. 

cost  and  freight 

A.  D. 

Anno  Domini 

c.a.f.e. 

cost  and  freight 

(in  the  year 

east 

of  our  Lord) 

c.i.f.,c.f.i. 

(cost,  insurance 

avg. 

average 

and  freight) 

bal. 

balance 

Cr. 

creditor 

bbl. 

barrel 

Dr. 

debtor  or  doctor 

B/L 

Bill  of  Lading 

Deft. 

defendant 

Bs/L 

Bills  of  Lading 

deg. 

degree 

bldg. 

building 

deg.,  min., 

(degrees,  min- 

bdls. 

bundles 

sec. 

utes,  seconds) 

bu. 

bushel 

do.  or  " 

ditto  (the  same) 

Bs.  Pay. 
orB/P 

>  Bills  Payable 

dol.  or  $ 
doz. 

dollar 
dozen 

Bs,  Rec. 

/  Bills  receivable 

dft. 

draft 

orB/R 

Dept. 

department 

bot. 

bought 

ea. 

each 

Bros. 

Brothers 

E.&.O.E. 

errors  and  omis- 

brot. 

brought 

sions  excepted 

per 

by 

etc. 

et  cetera  (and 

X  (2  X  4) 

by  (with  figures) 

so  forth) 

C.  0.  D. 

Collect  on 

e.  g. 

exempli  gratia 

Delivery 

(for  example) 

Cor.  Sec. 

Corresponding 

et  al. 

et  alii  (and 

Secretary 

others) 

Co. 

Company 

Fahr. 

Fahrenheit 

278 


LESSONS   AND   EXERCISES   IN   ENGLISH 


ft. 

feet  or  foot 

No., 

fig.,  1 

figs,    j 

figure-s 

Nos., 
or  ^    , 

number-s 

ford. 

forward 

0/T 

on  track 

f.  0.  b. 

free  on  board 

oz. 

ounce 

frt. 

gal,   1 
gals.  J 

freight 
gallon,  gallons 

p.,  1 

pp.  J 
pkg. 

page-s 
package 

G/A 

general  average 

pd. 

paid 

G.  P.  0. 

General  Post 

pwt. 

pennyweight 

office 

per  an. 

per  annum 

gr.          1 
or  gro.  J 

gross 

% 
P.T.  0 

per  cent 
please  turn  over 

Hon. 

Honorable 

pltf. 

plaintiff 

hund.  \ 

orC     ] 

hundred 

P.M. 

p.  m. 

Post  IVIaster 
post  meridian 

inst. 

instant  (present 

(after  noon) 

month) 

P.O. 

post  office 

in. 

ineh-es 

P.  0.0 

post  office  order 

i.  e. 

id  est  (that  is) 

prest. 

president 

I.  0.  U. 

I  owe  you 

prox. 

proximo  (coming 

Jr. 

Junior 

month) 

ltd. 

limited 

per 

by  (not  an 

lb. 

pound 

abbreviation) 

mdse. 

merchandise 

P.  S. 

postscript 

mfg. 

manufacturing 

(written  after) 

MS.,    1 
MSS.  J 

manuscript 

prem. 
P/T 

premium 
private  terms 

memo 
M. 

memoranda-um 
Meridian 

qt.,  1 
qts.  J 

quart-s 

N.  B. 

Nota  bene  (take 
notice) 

qr.,  1 

qrs.  J 

quarter-s 

N.  P. 

notary  public 

q. 

question 

PUNCTUATION 

279 

R.  R. 

railroad 

Str. 

Steamer 

R.  S.  V.  P. 

anfswer,  if  you 

S.  S. 

Steamship 

please 

T. 

ton 

Ry. 

railway 

M 

thousand 

reed. 

received 

Treas. 

treasurer 

r.  p.  m. 

revolutions  per 

tong. 

tonnage 

minute 

ult., 

\ 

ultimo  (last 

Rt.  Hon. 

Right  Honorable 

or  ulto. 

/ 

month) 

Rt.  Rev. 

Right  Reverend 

vs. 

versus  (against) 

sts. 

streets 

viz. 

videlicit  (namely) 

Supt. 

Superintendent 

via 

by  way  of  (not  an 

Sec.,     \ 
Secy.   J 

Secretary 

vols. 

abbreviation) 
volumes 

sec. 

section 

wt. 

weight 

Sr.       1 

Senior 

W/B,W/Bj 

5  Way  Bill-s 

Senr.    J 

yr. 

year 

INDEX 


References  are  to  pages.  Since  an  exercise  follows  each  lesson,  an 
exercise  on  any  subject  may  be  found  b}^  finding  that  subject  in  this 
index. 


Abbreviations,  260. 

Abstract  noun,  30. 

Ability,  40. 

Active  voice,  197. 

Access,  36. 

Accessio7i,  36. 

Accept,  83. 

Acceptance,  41. 

Acceptation,  41. 

Accredit,  83. 

Act,  37. 

Action,  37. 

Adjectives,  descriptive,  62;  definitive,  62;  nu- 
merals, 63;  pronominals,  63;  proper,  63; 
confused  with  adverbs,  103;  comparison 
of,  230;  list  of  irregular,  232;  uses  of  com- 
Darative  and  superlative,  234;  outline  clas- 
sification of,  67. 

Adherence,  37. 

Adhesion,  37. 

Admission,  40. 

Admittance,  iO- 

Advance,  37. 

Advancement,  37. 

Advise,  84,  91. 

Advertise,  8i. 

Admit,  84. 

Adverbs,  defined,  95;  errors  in  use  of,  97;  con- 
fusion with  adjectives,  103;  comparison 
of,  236;  may  modify,  238;  outUue  classifi- 
cation of,  98. 

Affect,  84, 

Agreement,  of  pronouns  and  antecedent,  158; 
of  verb  and  subject,  162;  of  adjective  and 
noun,  230;  of  complement  and  subject  of 
verb,  225. 

Aggravating,  67. 

Allusion,  37. 


Allow,  83. 

Alleviate,  84. 

Alone,  98. 

Almost,  99. 

Among,  120. 

Amateur,  36. 

Amount,  40. 

Antecedent,  of  pronouns,  defined,  150;  agree- 
ment of  pronouns  and,  158. 

Answer,  40. 

And,  125. 

Angry,  75. 

Anxious,  71. 

Anticipate,  91. 

Apostrophe,  with  plurals,  143 ;  with  possessive 
nouns,  146;  general  uses  of,  260. 

Appositive,  definition  of,  204;  case  of,  225; 
punctuation  of,  238,  153. 

Apt,  67. 

Argument,  40. 

Argue,  83. 

Assertion,  41. 

Ask,  87. 

As,  125. 

At,  120. 

Auxiliary  verbs,  explained,  177; shall  and  will, 
171;  should  and  would,  173. 

Augur,  83. 

Audience,  36. 

Average,  67. 

Awake,  194. 

Balance,  37. 
Beside,  120. 
Besides,  120. 
Between,  120. 
Because,  125. 
Beautiful,  72. 


281 


282 


INDEX 


Blunder,  47. 

Bound,  67. 

Bring ,  87. 

Brackets,  use  of,  258. 

Brave,  68. 

But,  as  conjunction,  125;  but  what,  127. 

Bui,  125. 

Capitalization,  rules  for,  32,  15. 

Can,  could,  uses  of,  192. 

Cases,  of  pronouns,  152;  of  nouns,  154;  case 
forms  of  personal  pronouns,  155;  case 
forms  of  relative  and  interrogative  pro- 
nouns, 154;  case  of  words  in  apposition, 
155;  possessive  case  of  nouns,  145;  uses 
of  nominative  and  objective,  225;  case 
used  with  gerund,  211. 

Capture,  87. 

Captivate,  87. 

Carry,  87. 

Calculate,  87. 

Capacity,  40. 

Centre,  43. 

Childish,  68. 

Childlike,  68. 

Character,  37. 

Clauses,  defined,  independent,  dependent, 
21;  noun,  239;  uses  of  noun,  239;  punc- 
tuation of  noun,  240;  adjective,  241;  uses 
of,  241;  punctuation  of,  242;  adverb,  243; 
uses  of,  243;  punctuation  of,  244. 

Colon,  uses  of,  251. 

Comma,  uses  of,  253. 

Complement,  43. 

Compliment,  43. 

Completion ,  44. 

Completeness,  44 

Common,  77. 

Confess,  84. 

Convict,  84. 

Convene,  84. 

Convince,  84. 

Convoke,  84. 

Construe,  86. 

Construct,  86. 

Conscience,  44. 

Consciousness,  44. 

Continual,  68. 

Continuous,  68. 

Contagious,  68. 

Contemptible,  68. 


Courageous,  68. 

Conteynptuous,  68. 

Council,  43. 

Counsel,  43. 

Couple,  44. 

Common  gender,  144. 

Comparative  degree,  defined,  231;  use  of,  234. 

Comparison,  degrees  of,  230;  how  formed,  231 ; 
uses  of  comparative  and  superlative,  234; 
of  adjectives,  230;  irregular  adjectives, 
232;  of  adverbs,  236;  irregular  adverbs, 
236;  terms  of,  234. 

Complements,  subjective,  80;  object,  79;  ob- 
jective, 80;  comjxjund,  80. 

Complex  sentence,  21. 

Compound  sentence,  23;  punctuation  of,  23. 

Compound-complex  sentence,  23. 

Compound  nouns,  30;  plural  of,  140;  posses- 
sive forma  of,  146;  use  of  hyphen  in,  271. 

Compound  pronouns,  149 ;  personal,  156 ;  rela- 
tive, 156. 

Compound  subject,  18;  agreement  of  verb 
with,  163. 

Compound  predicate,  18. 

Confusion  of  adjectives  and  adverbs,  103. 

Conjunctions,  defined,  122;  coordinate,  sub- 
ordinate, correlative,  123;  errors  in  the 
use  of,  126;  outline  classification  of,  128. 

Conjugation,  of  verb  "be,"  213;  of  verb 
"see,"  215;  passive,  218;  progressive  pas- 
sive, 221;  emphatic,  224;  interrogative,  224. 

Copulative  verb,  copula,  80. 

Correlatives,  placing  of,  123. 

Credible,  68. 

Creditable,  68. 

Credit,  83. 

Custom,  43. 

Customer,  51. 

Dash,  use  of,  257. 

Degrees  of  comparison,  230. 

Dependent  Clauses,  21,  239,  241,  243. 

Declarative  sentence,  9. 

Demonstrative  pronouns,  58;  number  of,  149. 

Deceit,  44. 

Deception,  44. 

Depot,  44. 

Delusion,  37. 

Detect,  87. 

Demand,  87. 

Depreciate,  87. 


INDEX 


283 


Deprecate,  87. 

Deadly,  71. 

Deathlij,7l. 

Decided,  71. 

Decision,  71. 

Determined,  67. 

Desirous,  71 

Disclose,  87. 

Discover,  87. 

Discriyninale,  87. 

Discovery,  47. 

Division  of  words  at  end  of  lines,  273. 

Dominate,  87. 

I>omi7teer,  87. 

Dn'De,  87. 

Dumb,  71. 

Each  other,  use  of,  159. 

E^ec^,  84. 

Either-or,123. 

Elements  of  the  sentence,  essential  elements, 
subject  and  predicate,  9;  subordinate  ele- 
ments, complements,  79,  80;  modifiers,  17. 

Elicit,  88. 

Eliminate,  88. 

Eminent,  71. 

Emigration,  44. 

Enormity,'^!. 

Enormousness,  47. 

Error,  47. 

Estimate,  47. 

Estimation,  47. 

Esteem,  90. 

Estimate,  90. 

Euphony,  in  choice  of  pronouns,  150. 

Evidence,  55. 

Exclamation  point,  use  of,  247,  128. 

Sxped,  91. 

Excep/,  83. 

^a:pose,  88. 

Expound,  88. 

Extant,  71. 

Existing,  71. 

Exclamatory  sentence,  15. 

Fa  sz7?/,47. 

Falseness,  47. 

Feminine  gender,  of  nouns,  143;  of  pronouns, 

150. 
Fewer,  74. 
Fmrf,  91. 
Funny,  71. 


Gender,  defined,  143;  how  distinguished,  143 
formation  of  feminine  of  nouns,  143;  of 
pronouns,  150. 

Gerund,  forms  of,  203;  confusion  with  parti- 
ciple and  abstract  verbal  noun,  211;  case 
used  with,  211. 

Good,  99. 

Habit,  43. 
Healthy,  72. 
Healthful,  72. 
Hesitation,  47. 
Hesitancy,^!. 
Hire,  90. 
Human,  7 1. 
Humane,  71. 
Hyphen,  use  of,  271. 

Identify,  AS. 
Identification,  48. 
Ideal,  72. 
Idle,  74. 

Idiom,  defined,  153;  Idiomatic  passives.  199. 
Illusion,  37. 
/mporf,  47. 
Importance,  47. 
Immigration,  44. 
Impute,  90. 
/?/zpwgn,90. 
/mrwuie/i^71. 
Imperative,  74. 
Imperious,  74. 

Imiperatlve,  sentence,  14;  subject  of ,  15;  punc- 
tuation of,  15;  mode  193. 
Infinitive,  defined,  203;  forms  of,  203;  uses  of, 
204;  uses  of  present  and  perfect,  207;  punc- 
tuation of,  207;  gerund,  211. 
Interrogative  sentence,  defined,  12;  arrange- 
ment and  punctuation  of,  12. 
Interrogative  pronouns,  defined,  58;  number 

of,  149;  gender  of,  150;  case  of,  154. 
Indefinite  pronouns,  defined,  59;  number  of, 

149. 
Interjection ,  defined,  128  •  parts  of  speech  used 

as,  128 ;  punctuation  of,  128. 
Intransitive  verbs,  80. 

Inflection ,  defined ,  133 ;  of  nouns,  133 ;  of  pro- 
nouns, 149;  of  adjectives,  230;  of  verbs, 
161;of  adverbs,  236. 
Independent  expressions,  noun,  15,  237;  infini- 
tive phrase,  204;  participial  phrase,  209. 
Independent  clauses,  defined ,  21. 


284 


INDEX 


Inaugurate,  91. 
Insure,  90. 
Intend,  87. 
Investigate,  91. 
Inquire,  91. 
In,  120. 
Into,  121. 
Indolent,  74. 
Infections,  68. 
Irritating ,  67. 

Kind  of  a,  64;  kind  with  plural  modifiers,  230. 

Last,  74. 

La^esi,  74. 

Lay,  194. 

Less,  74. 

Lengthy,  74. 

Lease,  90. 

Leave,  91. 

Lei,  90,  91. 

Lie  and  lay,  distinguished,  194, 

Liable   67. 

Likely,  67. 

LxTce,  125. 

LileZj/,  99. 

Lie,  194. 

Limit,  48. 

Limitation,  48. 

Long,  74. 

Locate,  91. 

Masculine  gender,  143. 
May,  might,  must,  192. 
iliac?,  75. 
Many,  75. 
Majority,  48. 
MirfdZe,  43 
Migration,  44, 
Mistake,  47. 
ilfosf,  99. 
l/os%,  99. 

Mode,  indicative,  187;  subjunctive,  187;  im- 
perative, 193. 
Muc/i.  75. 
Mutual,  75. 

A/'ew,  75. 
A/'ear,99. 
Neglect,  50. 


Nearly,  99. 

Negligence,  50. 

News,  50. 

Neither-nor,  123. 

Neuter  gender,  144;  of  pronouns,  150. 

Nominative  case,  of  pronouns,  153 ;  uses  of,  225. 

Nouns,  common  and  proper  class,  29;  collec- 
tive, abstract,  30;  number  of,  133 ;  gender 
of,  143;  possessive  forms  of,  145;  cane  of, 
154. 

Notable,  75. 

Notorious,  75. 

Novel,  75. 

Novice,  36. 

Novitiate,  ^6. 

Niunber,  of  nouns,  133;  of  pronouns,  149:  of 
verbs,  161;  of  adjectives,  230;  agreement 
of  verb  and  subject  lu,  162. 

Number,  40. 

O  and  oh,  distinguished,  129. 

Object,  79. 

Objective  complement,  80. 

Objective  case,  of  pronouns,  153;  uses  of,  225. 

Observation,  51. 

Ofeserm?ice,  51. 

Odd,7l. 

On,  121. 

Only,  98. 

Oral,  75. 

Or,  125. 

Ordinary,^!. 

Parenthesis,  marks  of,  258. 

Parts  of  speech,  28. 

Passive  voice,  197. 

Past  Participles,  defined,  177;  list  of,  179. 

Past  Tense,  168;  use  of,  169. 

Pair,  44. 

Party,  51. 

Part,  51. 

Patron,  hi. 

Participles,  defined,  200;  use  of,  209;  participial 

phrase,  209;  punctuation  of,  210;  confused 

with  gerund,  211. 
Period,  uses  of,  246. 
Personal  pronouns,  defined,  58;  number  of, 

149;  gender  of,  150;  case  of,  152;  peison  of. 

155. 
Person,  51. 


INDEX 


285 


Persuade,  91. 

Phrase,  defined, 17;  prepositional,  107;  adverb- 
ial, 107;  adjective,  107;  position  and  punc- 
tuation of  prepositional  phrase,  108. 

Pitiful,  75. 

Piliahle,  75. 

Plural  number,  defined,  133;  rules  for  forming 
plural  of  nouns,  133 ;  of  pronouns,  149. 

Plea,  40. 

Plurality,  48. 

Plausible,  lb. 

Positive  degree,  230. 

Possessive,  forms  cf  nouns,  145;  case  of  i)ro- 
nouns,  153. 

Portion,  51. 

Predicate,  defined,  9;  compound,  18. 

Pronouns,  defined,  57;  uses  of,  238;  classifica- 
tion of,  57;  antecedent  of ,  150;  agreement 
•with  antecedent,  158;  number  of,  149;  gen- 
der of,  150;  case  of,  152;  declension  of,  155. 

Present  tense,  168;  uses  of,  168. 

Prepositions,  106;  words  combined  -with,  110; 
errors  in  the  use  of,  116;  outline  classifica- 
tion of,  119;  omission  of,  116;  unnecessary 
use  of,  117. 

Prepositional  phrase,  106. 

Principal  parts  of  verbs,  179. 

Proper  adjectives,  capitalization  of,  63. 

Proper  nouns,  capitalization  of,  29. 

Pretence,  b\. 

Pretension,  51. 

Prind-palfbl. 

Principle,  51. 

Proposition,  51. 

Proposal,  51. 

Probably,  99. 

Practical,  75. 

Practicable,  75. 

Pretty,  72. 

Predominate,  76. 

Probable,  75. 

Prominent,  76. 

Predict,  91. 

Predicate,  91. 

Prescribe,  91. 

Proscribe,  91. 

Propose,  91. 

Punctuation,  rules  of,  216. 

Puerile,  68. 

Purpose,  91. 


Quantity,  40. 

Questions,  directand indirect,  12;  punctuation 
of,  12. 

Rai^e,  194. 

Relative  pronouns,  defined,  58;  case  of,  154; 

number  of,  149;  gender  of,  150;  antecedent 

of,  150. 
Response,  A^Q. 
Reply,  40. 
Rest,  37. 
Remainder,  37. 
Requirement,  54. 
Requisite,  54. 
Requisition,  54. 
Relative,  54. 
Relationship,  54. 
Relation,  54. 
Reputation,  37. 
Relieve,  84. 
Repel,  91. 
Repulse,  91. 
Real,  99. 
Really,  99. 

Rise  and  raise,  distinguished,  194 
Rise,  194. 
Ride,  87. 

S-Form  of  verbs,  162. 

Semicolon,  uses  of,  249. 

Sentences,  declarative,  9;  interrogative,  12;  im ; 

perative  and  exclamatory,  14;  simple,  18- 

complex,  21;  compound,  23. 
Sequence,  of  tenses,  185. 
Set  and  sit,  distinguished,  194. 
Sewage,  54. 
Sewerage,  54. 
Series,  55. 
Secure,  90. 
Set,  194. 
Shall  and  will,  use  of,  in  independent  clauses, 

170;  interrogative   sentences,    170;    other 

uses,  170, 171. 
Should  and  would,  uses  of,  173. 
Since,  125. 
Site,  54. 
Situation,  54. 
Sit,  194. 
Smaller,  74. 
Solicitude,  54. 


286 


INDEX 


Solicitation,  54. 

Some,  99. 

Soniewhat,^9 . 

Spectators,  36. 

Stupid,  71. 

Station,  44. 

Statement, il. 

Stimulus,  54. 

Stim-ulant,  5i. 

Stim.ulation,  54. 

Subject,  of  sentence,  9;  compound,  18. 

Subjunctive  mode,  187;  of  condition,  188;  of 

desire,  wish, or  purpose,  189;  of  possibility 

or  potentiality,  191. 
Superlative  degree,  231;  use  of,  234. 
Succession,  55. 
Suspect,  91. 

Syllables,  division  of  words,  into,  273. 
Syllabication,  273.' 

Tense,  explained,  168;  uses  of  present,  168; 
uses  of  past,  168;  uses  of  future,  168;  se- 
quence of,  185. 

Testimony,  55. 

Think, m. 

Titles,  abbreviations  of,  275. 

Tidings,  50. 

To,  99. 

Too,  99. 


Transitive  verbs,  defined,  79;  confused  with 

intransitive  verbs,  194. 
Two,  99. 

Verbs,  explained,  79;  transitive,  79;  intransi- 
tive- 80:  copulative  and  copula,  80,  defin- 
ition of,  82;  number  and  person  of,  161; 
tense,  168;  principal  parts  of,  179;  parts, 
how  formed,  178;  regular  and  irregular, 
178;  auxi  iary  177;  voice  of,  197;  conjuga- 
tion of,  213;  subject  of,  225;  agreement 
with  subject,  162;  infinitives  and  parti- 
ciples, 202;  gerund,  203. 

Verbal,  nouns,  211. 

Verdict,  55. 

Verbal,  75. 

Voice,  defined,  197;  active  and  passive,  197; 
passive,  how  formed,  198;  regular  and 
irregular  passives,  198. 

Vocation,  40. 

Wake  and  awake,  distinguished,  194. 

Wake,  194. 

Well,  99. 

When,  125. 

While,  125. 

Wholesome,  72. 

Will  and  shall,  171. 

With,  120. 

Would  and  should,  173. 


^.0(.^^l.''     ■% 


KEY 


DENGLEE'S  LESSONS  AND  EXEKCISES 

IN  ENGLISH 


BY 

WALTER  E.  DENGLER 


THE  H.  M.  ROWE  CO. 

HABLEM  SQUARE 

BALTIMORE,  MD. 


PAGE  37— 

EXERCISE  10 

ACCESS, 
ACCESSION, 

1.  access 

2.  accession 

3.  access 

4.  access 

5.  accession 

6.  access 

7.  access 

8.  access 

9.  accession 

AMATEUR, 

NOVICE, 
NOVITIATE, 

1.  novice 

2.  novitiate 

3.  amateurs 

4.  novice 

5.  amateurs 

6.  novice,    novitiate 

7.  novitiate 

AUDIENCE, 
SPECTATORS, 

1.  audience 

2.  spectators 

3.  audience 

4.  spectators 

ALLUSION, 
ILLUSION, 
DELUSION, 

1.  illusions 

2.  illusion 

3.  allusions 

4.  delusions 

5.  delusion 

ADHERENCE, 
ADHESION, 

1.  adherence 

2.  adherence 


3.  adhesion 

4.  adhesion 

ACT,   ACTION 

1.  act 

2.  action 

3.  act 

4.  acts 

5.  action 

6.  act 

ADVANCE, 
ADVANCEMENT, 

1.  advancement 

2.  advance 

3.  advance,  advance- 

ment 

4.  advancement 

5.  advancement 

6.  advance 

BALANCE, 

REMAINDER, 

REST 

1.  remainder 

2.  balance 

3.  remainder 

4.  rest 

5.  rest 

CHARACTER, 
REPUTATION 

1.  reputation 

2.  character 

3.  reputation 

4.  reputation 

PAGE  41— 

EXERCISE  11 

ABILITY, 
CAPACITY 

1.  ability 

2.  capacity 

3.  capacity,  ability 

1 


4.  ability 

5.  ability 

6.  ability 

AVOCATION, 
VOCATION 

1.  vocation 

2.  avocation 

3.  avocation 

4.  vocation 

5.  avocation,     voca- 

tion 

6.  avocation 

AMOUNT, 
NUMBER, 
QUANTITY 

1.  number 

2.  quantity 

3.  number 

PAGE  42 

4.  amount 

5.  number 

6.  quantity 

7.  number 

8.  number,  quantity 

9.  quantity 

10.  quantity 

11.  number 

ANSWER, 

RESPONSE, 

REPLY 

1.  answer 

2.  reply 

3.  response 

4.  answer,  reply 

5.  answer 

ADMITTANCE, 
ADMISSION 

1.  admittance 

2.  admission 

3.  admission 


4,  admittance 

3. 

compliments 

3. 

deception 

5.  admission 

4. 

complements 

4. 

deceit 

ARGUMENT, 

COUNCIL, 

5. 
6. 

deception 
deception 

PLEA 

COUNSEL 

1.  plea 

7. 

deceit 

1. 

council 

2.  argument 

2. 

counsel 

DEPOT, 

3.  argmnent 

3. 

council 

STATION 

ASSERTION, 

4. 

counsel 

1, 

station 

STATEMENT 

5. 

counsel 

2. 

depot 

1.  assertion 

CUSTOM, 

3. 

station 

2.  statement 

HABIT 

4. 

depot 

3.  assertion 

1. 

custom 

5. 

station 

4.  assertion 

2. 

habit 

EMIGRATION, 

5.  statement 

3. 

custom,  habit 

7 

IMMIGRATION, 

PAGE  43 

4. 

custom 

MIGRATION 

ACCEPTANCE, 

COUPLE, 

1. 

emigration 

ACCEPTATION 

PAIR 

2. 

immigration 

1.  acceptance 

1. 

couple 

3. 

immigration 

2.  acceptance 

2, 

pair 

4. 

emigration 

3.  acceptation 

3. 

pair 

5. 

immigration 

4.  acceptation 

4. 

couple 

6. 

emigration 

5.  acceptation 

CONSCIENCE. 

7. 
8. 

emigration 

6.  acceptance 

CONSCIOUSNESS 

migration 

7.  acceptance 

1. 

conscience 

PAGE  48— 

8.  acceptance 

2. 

consciousness 

EXERCISE  13 

PAGE  44— 

3. 

consciousness 

EXERCISE  12 

4. 

conscience 

ERROR, 
MISTAKE, 

CENTER, 

COMPLETION, 

BLUNDER 

MIDDLE 

' 

COMPLETENESS 

1. 

error 

1.  middle 

1. 

completion 

2. 

error 

2.  center 

2. 

completeness 

3. 

mistakes 

PAGE  45 

PAGE  46 

4. 

blunders 

3.  middle 

3. 

completeness 

ENORMITY, 

4.  middle 

4. 

completion 

ENORMOUSNESS 

5.  center 

5. 

completion 

1. 

enormousness 

COMPLIMENT, 

DECEPTION, 

2. 

enormity 

COMPLEMENT 

DECEIT 

3. 

enormousness 

1.  complement 

1. 

deception 

4. 

enormity 

2.  complement 

2. 

deceit 

5. 

enormousness 

ESTIMATION, 

PAGE  50 

OBSERVANCE, 

ESTIMATE 

IDENTIFY, 

OBSERVATION 

1. 

estimate 

IDENTIFICATION 

1. 

observance 

2. 

estimation 

1. 

Identification 

2. 

observation 

PAGE  49 

2. 
3. 

Identity 
Identification 

3. 
4. 

observance 
observation 

3. 

estimation 

5. 

observance 

4. 

estimate 

LIMIT, 

6. 

observation 

LIMITATION 

7. 

observation 

FALSITY, 

FALSENESS 

1. 
2. 

limitation 
limits,    limitation 

PARTY, 

1. 

falseness,     falsity 

3. 

limitation 

PERSON 

2. 

falseness 

4. 

limitations 

1. 

parties 

3. 

falseness 

5. 

limitations 

2. 

person 

4. 

falsity 

6. 

limitation,  limit 

3. 

party 

5. 

falsity 

4. 

person 

6. 

falseness 

MAJORITY, 

5. 

parties 

PLURALITY 

6. 

persons,  party 

HESITATION, 

1. 

majority 

7. 

persons,  party 

HESITANCY 

2. 

plurality,    major- 

8. 

party 

1. 

hesitation 

ity 
plurality,  major- 

2. 

hesitancy 

3. 

PART,    PORTION 

3. 

hesitation 

ity 

1. 

part 

4. 

hesitancy 

2. 

portion 

PAGE  51 

IMPORT, 

EXERCISE  14 

PAGE  53 

IMPORTANCE 

NEGLECT, 

3. 

parts 

1. 

import 

NEGLIGENCE 

4. 

part 

2. 

importance 

1. 

neglect,    negli- 

o. 

part 

3. 

importance 

gence 

4. 

import 

PRETENSE, 

5. 

importance 

PAGE  52 

PRETENSION 

6. 

importance 

2. 

neglect 

1. 

pretense 

3. 

negligence 

2. 

pretension 

INVENTION, 

4. 

negligence 

3. 

pretense 

DISCOVERY 

5. 

neglect 

4. 

pretense 

1. 

discovery 

6. 

neglect 
negligence 

2. 
3. 

inventions 
discovery 

7. 

PATRON, 
CUSTOMER, 

4. 

inventions 

NEWS, 

1. 

customers 

5. 

discovery 

TIDINGS 

2. 

customers 

6. 

discovered 

1. 

news 

3. 

patron 

7. 

discovery,    inven- 

2. 

tidings 

4. 

patrons 

tion 

3. 

tidings 

5. 

patron 

PRINCIPLE, 
PRINCIPAL 

1.  principal 

2.  principle 

3.  principal 

4.  principal,  princi- 

ple 

5.  principle 

PROPOSITION, 
PROPOSAL 

1 .  proposal 

2.  proposition 

3.  proposition 

4.  proposals 

5.  proposal 

6.  proposal 

PAGE  55— 

EXERCISE  15 

REQUIREMENT, 

REQUISITE, 
REQUISITIONS 

1.  requirements 

2.  requisites 

3.  requirement 

4.  requisite 

5.  requisition 

6.  requisition 

7.  requisites 

8.  requisites 

9.  requisitions 

RELATION, 

RELATIONSHIP, 

RELATIVE 

1.  relatives 

2.  relatives 

3.  relation 

4.  relationship 

5.  relation 

PAGE  56 

6.  relations 

7.  relatives 


SEWAGE, 
SEWERAGE 

1.  sewage 

2.  sewage 

3.  sewerage 

4.  sewerage 

5.  sewerage 

6.  sewage 

SITE, 
SITUATION 

1.  situation 

2.  site,  situation 

3.  site 

4.  site 

5.  situation 

6.  situation 

SOLICITUDE, 
SOLICITATION 

1.  solicitation 

2.  solicitude 

3.  solicitude 

4.  solicitation 

5.  solicitude 

STIMULUS, 

STIMULANT, 

STIMULATION 

1.  stimulus 

2.  stimulant 

3.  stimulation 

4.  stimulant 

5.  stimulus 

6.  stimulant 

7.  stimulant 

PAGE  57 

SERIES, 
SUCCESSION 

1.  series 

2.  succession 

3.  succession 

4.  succession 

5.  succession 

4 


TESTIMONY, 

EVIDENCE, 

VERDICT 

1.  testimony 

2.  verdict 

3.  evidence 

4.  testimony 

PAGE  68— 

EXERCISE  18 

AVERAGE, 
ORDINARY 

1.  average 

2.  ordinary 

PAGE  69 

3.  average 

4.  average 

5.  ordinary 

APT,    LIKELY, 
LIABLE 

1.  apt 

2.  apt 

3.  liable 

4.  likely 

5.  liable 

6.  apt 

7.  liable 

8.  likely 

AGGRAVATING, 
IRRITATING 

1.  irritating 

2.  irritating 

3.  aggravating 

4.  irritating 

BOUND, 
DETERMINED 

1.  determined 

2.  determined 

3.  determined 

4.  determined 

5.  l^ound 


CONTINUAL, 
CONTINUOUS 

1.  continuous 

2.  continual 

3.  continuous 

-i.  continuous,     con- 
tinual 

0.  continuous 

PAGE  70 

().  continuous 
7.  continuous 
CHILDISH, 
CHILDLIKE, 
PUERILE 

1.  childish 

2.  childish 

3.  childlike 

4.  childlike 

5.  childishness 

6.  childlike 

7.  puerile 

CREDIBLE, 
CREDITABLE 

1 .  creditable 

2.  credible 

3.  creditable 

4.  credible 

5.  creditable 

BRAVE, 
COURAGEOUS 

1.  courageous 

2.  brave,  courageous 

3.  brave 

4.  courageous 

CONTAGIOUS, 
INFECTIOUS 

1.  contagious 

2.  infectious 

3.  contagious,  infec- 

tious 

4.  contagious 


CONTEMPTUOUS, 
CONTEMPTIBLE 

1.  contemptible 

2.  contemptuous 

3.  contemptible 

4.  contemptuous 

PAGE  72— 

EXERCISE  19 

DECIDED, 
DECISIVE 

1.  decisive 

2.  decided 

3.  decisive 

4.  decisive 

5.  decided 

DEADLY, 
DEATHLY 

1.  deadly 

2.  deathly 

3.  deadly 

4.  deathly 

5.  deathly 

6.  deadly 

DESIROUS, 
ANXIOUS 

1.  anxious 

2.  anxious 

3.  desirous 

4.  desirous 

5.  anxious 

PAGE  73 

DUMB,    STUPID 

1.  dumb 

2.  stupid 

3.  dumb 

4.  dumb 
o.  dumb 


EMINENT, 
IMMINENT 

1.  eminent 

2.  imminent 

3.  imminent 

4.  eminent 

0.  eminent 

EXTANT, 
EXISTING 

1.  extant 

2.  extant 

3.  extant 

4.  existing 

5.  existing 

FUNNY,    ODD 

1.  odd 

2.  funny 

3.  odd 

4.  funny 

5.  odd 

HUMAN, 
HUMANE 

1.  human 

2.  human 

3.  human 

4.  humane 

HEALTHY, 
HEALTHFUL, 
WHOLESOME 

1.  wholesome 

2.  healthful 

PAGE  74 

3.  wholesome,    heal- 

thy 

4.  healthy,    whole- 

some, healthful 

5.  healthful 


IDEAL, 
BEAUTIFUL 

1.  beautiful 

2.  ideal 

3.  beautiful 

4.  beautiful 

5.  beautiful 

6.  beautiful 

PAGE  76— 

EXERCISE  2« 

IDLE, 
INDOLENT 

1.  idle,  idolent 

2.  idle 

3.  idle,  idolent 

4.  idle,  idolent 

IMPERATIVE, 
IMPERIOUS 

1.  imperative 

2.  imperative,     im- 

perious 

3.  imperious 

4.  imperative 

5.  imperative 

LATEST,    LAST 

1.  latest 

2.  last 

3.  latest 

4.  latest 

5.  last 

LENGTHY, 
LONG 

1.  lengthy 

2.  long 

3.  lengthy 

4.  long 

5.  long 


PAGE  77 

LESS,    FEWER, 
SMALLER 

1.  fewer 

2.  fewer 

3.  less 

4.  fewer 

5.  smaller 

6.  less 

7.  fewer 

8.  fewer 

MAD,    ANGRY 

1.  angry 

2.  mad 

3.  angry 

4.  mad 

5.  angry 

MUCH,    MANY 

1.  many 

2.  many 

3.  much 

4.  many 

5.  much 

MUTUAL, 
COMMON 

1.  mutual 

2.  common 

3.  common 

4.  common 

NEW,    NOVEL 

1.  novel 

2.  novel 

3.  new 

4.  new 

5.  new 

PAGE  78 

NOTABLE, 
NOTORIOUS 

1.  notorious 

2.  notable 

6 


3.  notorious 

4.  notable 

ORAL,    VERBAL 

1.  oral 

2.  verbal 

3.  oral 

4.  verbal 

PITIABLE, 
PITIFUL 

1.  pitiful 

2.  pitiable 

3.  pitiable 

4.  pitiable 

5.  pitiable 

PRACTICABLE, 
PRACTICAL 

1.  practical 

2.  practicable 

3.  practicable 

4.  practicable 

5.  practical 

PROBABLE, 
PLAUSIBLE 

1.  plausible 

2.  plausible 

3.  probable 

4.  probable 

5.  probable 

PROMINENT, 
PREDOMINANT 

1.  predominant 

2.  prominent 

PAGE  79 

3.  prominent 

4.  prominent 

.5.  prominent,    pre- 
dominant 


PAGE  84— 

EXERCISE  22 

ALLOW,    THINK 

1.  allow 

2.  think 

3.  allow 

4.  think 

0.  allow 
6.  think 

PAGE  85 

ACCEPT,    EXCEPT 

1.  accept 

2.  excepted 

3.  accept 

4.  accept 

0.  except 

ACCREDIT, 
CREDIT 

1.  accredited 

2.  credit 

3.  credited 

4.  accredited 

5.  credited 

ARGUE,   AUGUR 

1.  argue 

2.  augurs 

3.  argue 

4.  augurs 

5.  argue 

ADMIT,    CONFESS 

1.  admit 

2.  confess 

3.  confess 

4.  admit 

5.  admits 

ALLEVIATE. 
RELIEVE 

1.  relieve 

2.  relieve 

3.  alleviated 


4.  relievo 

5.  alleviate 

PAGE  86 

AFFECT,    EFFECT 

1.  affect 

2.  effect,  affect 

3.  affects 

4.  affected 

5.  effected 

6.  affected 

ADVERTISE, 
ADVISE 

1.  advise 

2.  advised 

3.  advertised 

4.  advertised 

5.  advise 

CONVINCE, 
CONVICT 

1.  convincing 

2.  convinced,     con- 

vict 

3.  convince 

4.  convinced 

5.  convince 

CONVOKE, 
CONVENE 

1.  convened 

2.  convoked 

3.  convene 

4.  convene 

5.  convoked 

PAGE  88— 

EXERCISE  23 

CONSTRUCT, 
CONSTRUE 

1.  constructed 

2.  construe 

3.  construe 

4.  constructs 


CALCULATE, 
INTEND 

1.  calculate 

2.  intend 

3.  intends 

4.  calculated 

5.  intend 

CAPTIVATE, 
CAPTURE 

1.  captivated 

2.  captured 

3.  captured 

4.  captured 

5.  captivates 

CARRY,    BRING 

1.  carry 

2.  carry 

3.  bring 

4.  bring 

PAGE  89 

DRIVE,    RIDE 

1.  driving 

2.  driving 

3.  riding 

4.  ridden 

5.  ridden 

DISCLOSE, 
DISCOVER 

1.  discovered 

2.  disclose 

3.  disclosing 

4.  discovered 

DETEST, 
DISCRIMINATE 

1.  discriminate 

2.  detect 

3.  detect 

4.  detected 

5.  discriminate 


DOMINATE, 

HIRE,    LET, 

LOCATE,    FIND 

DOMINEER 

LEASE 

1.  found 

1.  dominate 

1. 

let 

2.  found 

2.  dominate 

2. 

lease    • 

3.  located 

3.  domineer 

3. 

let 

4.  found 

4.  domineers 

4. 

hired 

^ 

let 

PURPOSE, 

DEPRECIATE, 

o. 

■ 

6. 

let 

PROPOSE 

DEPRECATE 

1.  deprecated 

2.  depreciate 

3.  depreciate 

4.  depreciate 

1. 
2. 

IMPUTE, 
IMPUGN 

impute 
impugning 

1.  purpose 

2.  purpose 

3.  propose 

4.  purpose 

5.  proposed 

DEMAND,    ASK 

3. 

impugned 

4. 

imputed 

PREDICT, 

1.  demanded 

x^ 

PREDICATE 

2.  asked 

INSURE, 

1.  predicted 

PAGE  90 

3.  demand 

4.  demanded 

SECURE 

2.  predicated 

1. 

2. 
3. 

insured 
secured 
secure 

3.  predicts 

4,  predicted 

ELICIT, 

4. 

secure 

PRESCRIBE, 

ELIMINATE 

5. 

insured 

PROSCRIBE 

1.  elicits 

1.  proscribed 

2.  eliminate 

INVESTIGATE, 

2.  proscribed 

3.  elicit 

INQUIRE 

3.  prescribed 

4.  eliminate 

1. 

inquired 

2. 

investigated 

PAGE  94 

EXPOSE, 
EXPOUND 

3. 

investigated 

4.  prescribed 

1.  expounded 

PAGE  93 

5.  prescribed 

2.  expounded 

3.  exposed 

4. 
5. 

inquire 
investigate 

PERSUADE, 
ADVISE 

4.  expound 

1.  advised,  persuadr 

5.  expose 

LET,    LEAVE 

2,  persuaded 

PAGE  92— 

1. 

leave 

3.  advised 

EXERCISE  24 

2. 

leave 

4.  advice 

3. 

let 

ESTIMATE, 

4. 

let 

REPULSE,    REPEL 

ESTEEM 

5. 

let,  leave 

1.  repelled 

1.  esteemed 

6. 

let 

2.  repulsed 

2.  esteemed 

7. 

let 

3  .repelled 

3.  estimated 

8. 

let 

4.  repel 

4.  estimate 

9. 

leave 

o.  repulsed 

SUSPECT, 

EXPECT, 
ANTICIPATE, 
INAUGURATE 

1.  anticipate 

2.  suspect 

3.  inaugurated 

4.  expect 

5.  anticipate 

6.  expect 

7.  expect 

8.  anticipated 

9.  expect 

PAGE  100— 

EXERCISE  26 

ALONE,    ONLY 

1.  alone 

2.  only 

3.  only 

4.  alone 

5.  alone 

6.  only 

7.  alone 

8.  only 

9.  only 
10.  only 

FIRST,    SECOND, 
SECONDLY,    ETC. 

1.  first,  second 

2.  first,  second 

3.  first,  second,  third 

4.  first,  secondly, 

thirdly 

5.  secondly 

6.  first,  second,  third 

7.  first,  secondly 

8.  first,  second 
GOOD,    WELL 

1.  good 

2.  well 

3.  well 


PAGE  101 

4.  well 

5.  well 

6.  well 

7.  well,  good 

8.  well 

9.  good,  well 
10.  well 

LIKELY, 
PROBABLY 

1.  probably 

2.  likely 

3.  likely 

4.  probably 

5.  likely 

6.  probably 

7.  likely 

8.  probably 

9.  likely 
10.  probably 

MOST,    ALMOST 

1.  almost 

2.  almost 

3.  almost 

4.  most 

5.  almost 

6.  almost 

7.  almost 

8.  almost 

9.  most 

10.  almost 

NEAR,    NEARLY 

1.  nearly 

2.  near 

3.  nearly 

4.  nearly 

5.  nearly 

6.  nearly 

PAGE  102 

7.  near,  nearly 

8.  nearly 

9 


9.  nearly 
10.  nearly 

REAL,    REALLY 

1.  real 

2.  real 

3.  real 

4.  really 

5.  really 

6.  really 

7.  really 

8.  really 

9.  really,  real 
10.  really 

SOME, 
SOMEWHAT 

1.  somewhat 

2.  somewhat 

3.  somewhat 

4.  some 

5.  somewhat 

6.  somewhat 

7.  somewhat 

8.  somewhat 

9.  somewhat 

10.  somewhat 

TOO,    TWO,    TO 

1.  too 

2.  too 

3.  too 

4.  too 

5.  two 

6.  too 

7.  too 

PAGE  103 

8.  too 

9.  too 

10.  too 

11.  to 

12.  to 


PAGE  104— E: 

XERGISE  27 

MODIFIED 

MODIFIERS 

WORDS 

35. 
36. 

do  decide 
run 

quickly 
fast 

MODIFIED 

MODIFIERS 

37. 

write 

occasionally 

1. 

return 

quickly 

38. 

send 

direct,  directly 

2. 

flashed 

vividly 

39. 

was  sailing 

slowly 

3. 

raise 

quickly 

40. 

dangerous 

terribly 

4. 

was  washed 

badly 

41. 

well 

tolerably 

5. 

shone 

brightly 

42. 

write 

more  plainly 

6. 

disappeared 

suddenly 

43. 

have   been   ir 

t- 

7. 

sang 

joyously 

formed 

wrongly 

8. 

was  sleeping 

soundly 

44. 

I 

free 

9. 

were  alarmed 

seriously 

45. 

walk 

quietly 

10. 

successful 

uncommonly 

46. 

acted 

independently 

11. 

speak 

distinctly 

47. 

was  prepared 

ill 

12. 

read 

rapidly 

48. 

raging 

furiously 

13. 

runs 

quietlj' 

49. 

orange 

sour 

14. 

must   be   writ 

-,- 

50. 

worked 

gallantly 

ten 

neatly 

51. 

was  done 

easily 

15. 

she 

beautiful 

52. 

bayed 

loudly 

16. 

voice 

harsh 

53. 

cold 

exceedingly 

17. 

are  doing 

nicely 

54. 

Melba,  sang 

beautiful, 

18. 

it 

bad 

sweetly 

19. 

feel 

badly 

55. 

heavy 

tolerably 

20. 

velvet 

smooth 

56. 

can  do 

surely 

21. 

roses 

sweet 

57. 

concise 

remarkably 

22. 

place 

different 

58. 

suffered 

terribly 

23. 

speak 

slowly, 

59. 

is  done 

ill 

distinctly 

60. 

good 

decidedly 

24. 

are  feeling 

well 

61. 

was  managed 

badly 

25. 

John 

bad 

62. 

speak 

quietly 

26. 

arrange 

alphabetically 

63. 

sit 

quiet,  quietly 

27. 

breathes 

freely 

64. 

writes 

well 

28. 

low 

remarkably 

65. 

stars 

cold 

29. 

is  reduced 

considerably 

66. 

fits 

well 

30. 

considered 

favorably 

67. 

wind 

cold 

31. 

good 

remarkably 

68. 

I 

bashful 

32. 

was  managed 

successfully 

69. 

we 

safe,  sound 

70. 

man 

awkward 

33. 

PAGE  105 

should  have 

PAGE  106 

explained 

definitely 

71. 

fruit,  it 

good,  bad 

34. 

arrange 

chronologically 

72. 
10 

matters 

bad 

MODIFIED 

MODIFIERS 

MODIFIED 

MODIFIERS 

73.  voice 

strange 

82. 

warrior 

fierce 

74.  he 

silent 

83. 

burns 

brightly 

75.  bells 

harsh 

84. 

harsh 

decidedly 

76.  ran 

smoothly 

85. 

beautiful 

remarkably 

77.  ran 

smoothly 

86. 

load 

carefully 

78.  looked 

cold 

87. 

flowed 

rapidly 

79.  looked 

coldly 

88. 

spoke 

warmly 

80.  behave 

properly 

89. 

voice 

different 

81.  acted 

wildly 

90. 

arrived 

safely 

PAGE  113^ 

29. 

by 

59. 

in,  at 

EXERCISE  29           30. 

1    of                                  31- 

of 
to 

PAGE  116 

X  •        XJM. 

2.  to 

32. 

on 

60. 

from,  by 

3.  by 

33. 

with 

61. 

against,  from 

34. 

at 

62. 

with,  to 

PAGE  114 

4.  to 

PAGE  115 

63. 
64. 

with,  against 
of,  at 

5.  of 

35. 

by 

65. 

with,  to 

6.  of 

36. 

from 

66. 

of,  in 

7.  on 

37. 

with 

67. 

on,  in 

8.  in 

38. 

in 

68. 

on,  to 

9.  of 

39. 

to 

69. 

at,  in,  on 

10.  of 

40. 

of 

70. 

for,  for 

11.  with 

41. 

to 

71. 

on,  for 

12.  to 

42. 

with,  at 

72. 

about,  for 

13.  for 

14.  to 

15.  by 

43. 
44. 
45. 

with 
by,  with 
to 

PAGE  121— 

EXERCISE  31 

16.  for 

46. 

to 

AMONG, 

17.  with,  to 

47. 

from 

BETWEEN 

18.  on 

48. 

from 

1. 

between 

19.  one 

49. 

with 

2. 

among 

20.  with 

21.  with 

22.  from 

50. 
51. 
52. 

in 

to,  with 

over,  with 

3. 

4. 
5. 

among 
among 
among 

23.  for 

53. 

in,  at 

6. 

between 

24.  of 

25.  with 

54. 
55. 

with,  to 
for,  for, 

for 

7. 

among 

26.  of 

56. 

of,  over 

,  of 

AT,    IN 

27.  with 

57. 

of,  in 

1. 

at 

28.  with 

58. 

on 

11 

2. 

in 

3.  in 

4.  at 

5.  at 

6.  at,  in 

BESIDE,    BESIDES 

1.  beside 

2.  besides 

3.  beside 

4.  besides 

5.  beside 

PAGE  122 


BY,    WITH 


1.  by 

2.  with 

3.  with 

4.  by 

5.  by 

6.  with 

7.  with 

8.  with 


1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 


IN,    INTO 

into 
in 

into,  in 
into 
into 


into 
into 
into 


IN,    ON 


1.  on 

2.  in 

3.  on 

4.  on 

5.  on,  in 

6.  on 


PAGE  125— 

EXERCISE  32 

1.  although 

2.  and 

3.  consequently 

4.  or 

PAGE  126 

5.  therefore 

6.  and 

7.  and 

8.  and 

9.  but 

10.  unless 

11.  if 

12.  but 

13.  but 

14.  and 

15.  although 

16.  since 

17.  therefore 

18.  although 

19.  although 

20.  until 

21.  before 

22.  since 

23.  as 

24.  because 

25.  because 

26.  and,  and 

27.  or 

28.  although 

29.  because 

30.  but 

31.  if 

PAGE  151— 

EXERCISE  42 

1.  that 

2.  who 

3.  that 

4.  that 


5.  that 

6.  who 

7.  who 

8.  that 

9.  that 

10.  who 

11.  that 

12.  who 

13.  who 

14.  that 

15.  who 

16.  who 

17.  that 

18.  who 

19.  what 

20.  who 

21.  that 

22.  who 

23.  that 

24.  that 

25.  that 

PAGE  152 

26.  that,  which 

27.  that 

28.  that 

29.  that 

30.  which 

31.  that 

32.  that 

33.  that 

34.  what 

35.  who 

36.  that 

37.  that 

38.  that 

39.  what 

40.  what 

41.  as 

42.  as 

43.  that 

44.  that 

45.  as 


12 


fAfJb.  160— EXEK 

LCISE   44 

ANTECEDENT 

PRONOUN 

ANTECEDENT 

PRONOUN 

37. 

person 

his 

1. 

2. 

everybody 
poverty  and 
wealth 

his 
their 

38. 
39. 
40. 

no  one 

each  of  the  girls 

envy  and  hatred 

his 

her 
their 

3. 

neither 

his 

41. 

any  one 

he 

4. 
5. 

any  one 
classmate  and 

him,  his 

42. 
43. 

man 
lady  and 

his 

companion 

his 

gentleman 

their,  his 

6. 

everybody 

himself 

or  her 

7. 

each 

he 

44. 

member 

his 

8. 

steamer,  train 

its 

45. 

city,  village,  farm 

I  its 

9. 

James  or  William 

his 

46. 

Joseph  and 

10. 
11. 

elephant 
everyone 

his 
his 

47. 

Benjamin 
Henry  and  James 

their 
their 

12. 

husband  and 
father 

his 

48. 

Henry  or  James 

his 

13. 

each 

his 

PAGE  166— EXERCISE  45 

14. 

15. 

bat 
beaver 

its 
his 

SUBJECT 

VERB 

16. 

committee 

its 

1. 

nothing 

was 

17. 

dog 

his 

2. 

food 

was 

18. 

officer  and  soldier 

his 

o 

army 

was 

19. 

everybody 

himself 

4. 

committee 

is 

20. 

person 

his 

5. 

three-fourths 

were 

21. 

one 

one 

6. 

three-fourths 

is 

22. 

child 

its 

7. 

you 

were 

23. 

fox 

his 

8. 

desire  and  ambi- 

24. 

spring 

her 

tion 

is 

25. 

person 

his 

9. 

one 

is 

26. 

each  of  the  men 

his 

10. 

you 

are 

27. 

truth 

she 

11. 

persons 

are 

28. 

tree 

its 

12. 

number 

were 

29. 

news 

it 

13. 

data 

are 

30. 

each  of  the  women 

I  her 

14. 

either 

was . 

31. 

boy  or  girl 

he  or  she 

15. 

memoranda 

were 

32. 

man 

his 

16. 

neither  • 

was 

33. 

person 

his 

17. 

one 

was 

34. 

everyone 

his 

18. 

class 

is 

PAGE  161 

19. 
20. 

horse 

five  hundred 

was 

35. 

workman 

his 

dollars 

is 

36. 

shears 

thej' 

21. 

jury 

was 

13 


SUBJECT 

VERB 

SUBJECT 

VERB 

22. 

jury 

were 

51. 

James  nor  Henry 

was 

23. 

pen,  ink  and 

52. 

James  or  Henrj'^ 

was 

paper 

are 

53. 

girls 

come 

24. 

committee 

were 

54. 

three  hundred 

25. 

two  dollars 

is 

dollars 

was 

26. 

two  hours 

is 

55. 

dog 

is 

27. 

scissors 

are 

56. 

dog 

are 

28. 

everyone 

is 

57. 

hat  and  coat 

are 

29. 

you 

were 

58. 

number 

were 

30. 

public 

is 

59. 

number 

was 

31. 

nation 

is 

60. 

that 

are 

32. 

men 

were 

61. 

who 

were 

33. 

money 

was 

62. 

one  times  three 

is 

34. 

interest 

is 

63. 

two  times  two 

is 

35. 

wages 

is 

64. 

boys 

come 

36. 

father  and  mother 

■  are 

65. 

that 

overlook 

37. 

every  one 

is 

66. 

that 

overlooks 

38. 

class 

are 

67. 

that 

were 

39. 

power  and 

68. 

that 

are 

influence 

are 

69. 

one  times  six 

is 

PAGE  WJ 

7 

70. 
71. 

riches 

care,  money,  time 

are 
was 

40. 

variety  of  flowers 

were 

72. 

sound 

was 

41. 

others 

seem 

73. 

they 

are 

42. 

ideas 

seem 

74. 

two  times  three 

is 

43. 

girl 

comes 

75. 

twice  as 

much 

is 

44. 

persons 

were 

76. 

book,  paper 

was 

45. 

46. 

two 
son 

were 

was 

PAGE  168 

1 

47. 

problem 

was 

77. 

pupils 

are 

48. 

James 

was 

78, 

teacher 

is 

49. 

James 

was 

79. 

he 

is 

50. 

James 

was 

80. 

I 

am 

PAGE  171— 

5.  shall 

11. 

shall 

EXERCISE  46 

6.  shall 

7.  will 

12. 
13. 

will 
will 

1. 

SHALL,    WILL 
will 

PAGE  172 

14. 
15. 

shall 
shall 

2. 

will 

8.  shall 

16. 

shall 

3. 

shall 

9.  shall 

17. 

shall 

4. 

shall 

10.  shall 

18. 

shall 

14 


19.  will 

PAGE  174r— 

39. 

should 

20.  shall,  will 

EXERCISE  47 

40. 

would 

21.  will 

41. 

should 

22.  shall 

SHOULD, 

WOULD 

42. 

should,  would 

23.  shall 

1. 

should 

43. 

would 

24.  shall 

2. 

should 

44. 

should 

25.  shall 

3. 

should 

45. 

would 

26.  shall 

4. 

would 

46. 

should 

27.  will 

5. 

would 

47. 

should,  would 

28.  shall 

6. 

should 

48. 

would,  would 

29.  will 

7. 

would 

49. 

should 

30.  shall 

8. 

should. 

should 

50. 

would,  should 

31.  will,  will 

9. 

would, 

should 

51. 

should 

32.  shall 

10. 

would 

33.  shall 

11. 

would,  1 

should 

PAGE  189— 

34.  will 

12. 

should. 

should 

EXERCISE  50 

35.  shall 

13. 

would 

1. 

were 

36.  shall 

14. 

should 

PAGE  190 

37.  shall 

15. 

should. 

would 

I 

38.  shall 

16. 

should. 

would 

2. 

be 

39    shall 

17. 

should, 

should 

3. 

swears 

40.  shall 

18. 

would 

4. 

hunger 

41.  will 

19. 

should 

5. 

is 

20. 

should 

6. 

fail 

PAGE  173 

21. 

would 

7. 

were 

42.  shall 

22. 

would 

8. 

were 

43.  will 

23. 

would 

9. 

be 

44.  will 

24. 

would 

10. 

was 

45.  will 

25. 

would 

11. 

be 

46.  shall 

26. 

should. 

should 

12. 

slay 

47.  shall 

27. 

should 

13. 

study 

48.  will,  shall 

14. 

were 

49.  shall 

PAGE  175 

15. 

were 

50.  shall 

28. 

would 

16. 

were 

51.  will 

29. 

should 

17. 

were 

52.  will 

30. 

would 

18. 

were 

53.  will 

31. 

should 

19. 

seems 

54.  shall 

32. 

would 

20. 

be 

55.  shall 

33. 

should 

21. 

be 

56.  will 

34. 

would 

22. 

were 

57.  shall 

35. 

should 

23. 

be 

58.  will,  shall 

36. 

would 

24. 

were 

59.  shall 

37. 

should. 

would 

25. 

am 

60.  shall 

38. 

should 

26. 

were 

15 

27.  be 

28.  were 

29.  were 

30.  were 

31.  come 

32.  rain 

33.  was 

34.  were 

35.  rains 

36.  return 

37.  pay 

38.  were 

39.  be 

40.  were 

41.  suspects 

PAGE  191 

42.  were 

43.  were 

44.  were 

45.  were 

46.  surprise 

47.  were 

48.  were 

49.  die 

50.  bring 

51.  tell 

52.  were 

53.  were 

54.  be 

55.  were 

56.  be 

57.  were 

58.  were 

59.  oppress 

60.  were 

PAGE  194— 

EXERCISE  52 


SIT,    SET 


1.  sat 

2.  sit 

3.  sat 


PAGE  195 

PAGE  196 

4.  sat 

7. 

lay 

5.  set 

8. 

lay 

6.  sit 

9. 

lie 

7.  sat 

10. 

lay 

8,  sitting 

11. 

lay 

9.  set 

12. 

laid 

10.  sit 

13. 

lay 

11.  sat 

14. 

lay 

12.  set 

15. 

lain 

13.  setting 

16. 

lie 

14.  sets 

17. 

lying 

15.  sit 

18. 

lay 

16.  sat 

19. 

lay 

17.  sat 

20. 

laid 

18.  sat 

21. 

laying 

19.  sat 

22. 

lying 

20.  sitting 

23. 

lie 

21.  sat,  set 

24. 

lying 

22.  set 

25. 

lay 

23.  sitting 

26. 

lay 

24.  setting 

27. 

lain 

25.  sit 

28. 

lie 

26.  sitting 

29. 

lay 

27.  sitting 

30. 

lain 

28.  set 

31. 

laid 

29.  sit 

32. 

lies,  or  lay 

30.  set,  sits 

33. 

laid 

31.  sit 

32.  sat 

33.  sitting,  setting 

RISE,    RAISE 

34.  sit 

1. 

risen 

35.  sitting 

2. 

rose 

3. 

rising 

LIE,    LAY 

4. 

raise 

5. 

rise 

1.   lay 

6. 

risen 

2.  laid 

7. 

raised 

3.  lie,  lay 

8. 

rise 

4.  lain 

9. 

rise 

5.  lain 

10. 

rose 

6.  lie 

11. 

raised 

16 


PAGE  197 

19.  his 

PAGE  227 

20.  student's 

12.  rises 

13.  rise 

21.  his 

WE,    us. 

OURSELVES 

22.  man 

14.  rose 

. 

23.  man's 

1. 

us 

15.  rise 

24.  our 

2, 

we 

AWAKE,    WAKE 

25.  your,  your 

3. 

us 

1.  awoke 

4. 

we 

2.  woke 

PAGE  226— 

5. 

we 

3.  waked 

LESSON  59 

6. 

we 

4.  awake 

I,    ME,    MYSELF 

7. 

us 

5.  awaked 

1.  me 

8. 

we 

6.  awoke 

2.  I 

9. 

we 

7.  awaked 

3.  I 

10. 

we 

8.  woke 

4.  I 

11. 

we 

9.  awoke,  woke 

5.  I 

12. 

us 

10.  awoke 

6.  I 

13. 

we 

1 1 .  woke 

7.  me 

14. 

us 

12.  awoke 

8.  I 

15. 

us 

13.  woke 

9.  me 

16. 

us 

14.  woke 

10.  me 

17. 

us 

15.  wake 

11.  I 

18. 

us 

12.  me 

19. 

we 

PAGE  212— 

13.  I 

20. 

ourselves 

EXERCISE  57 

14.  I 

21. 

ourselves 

1.  my 

15.  I 

22. 

we 

2.  king's 

16.  I 

23. 

we 

3.  your 

17.  me 

24. 

we 

4.  my 

18.  I 

25. 

we 

5.  his 

19.  me 

6.  our 

SHE,    HER, 

20.  me 

/                            ' 

^ 

HERSELF 

/.  man 

21.  I 

8.  woman 

22.  I 

1. 

she 

9.  his 

23.  me 

2. 

she 

10.  him 

24.  me 

3. 

she 

11.  his 

25.  I 

4. 

she 

12.  his 

26.  me 

5. 

her 

13.  his 

27.  I 

6. 

she 

14.  robber's 

28.  me 

7. 

she 

15.  your 

29.  me 

8. 

she 

16.  his 

30.  me 

9. 

her 

17.  his 

31.  myself 

10. 

her 

18.  your 

32.  myself 

11. 

her 

17 


PAGE  228 

12.  she 

13.  her 

14.  she 

15.  she 

16.  she 

17.  she 

18.  her 

19.  her 

20.  her 

HE,    HIM, 
HIMSELF 

1.  him 

2.  he 

3.  he 

4.  he 

5.  he 

6.  him 

7.  he 

8.  he 

9.  him 

10.  him 

11.  himself 

12.  he,  himself 

13.  he 

14.  him 

15.  him 

16.  he 

17.  him 

18.  he 

19.  him 

20.  him 


THEY,    THEM, 
THEMSELVES 

1.  they 

2.  them 

3.  they 

4.  them 

5.  them 

6.  they 

7.  they 

8.  they 

PAGE  229 

9.  them 

10.  them 

11.  they 

12.  they 

13.  them 

14.  they,     themselves 

15.  they 

WHO,    WHOM, 
WHOEVER, 
WHOMEVER 

1.  who 

2.  whom 

3.  whom 

4.  who 

5.  whom 

6.  who,    or   whoever 

7.  whom 

8.  who 

9.  whom 

10.  whom 

11.  whom 

12.  who 

13.  whomever 


14.  who 

15.  whom 

16.  whom 

17.  who 

18.  whom 

19.  whom 

20.  whom 

21.  whom 

22.  who 

23.  who 

24.  whom 

25.  whom 

26.  whom 

27.  who 

28.  whom 

29.  whom 

30.  whom 

31.  whom,   or  whom- 

ever 

PAGE  230 

32.  whomever 

33.  whom 

34.  who 

35.  whom 

36.  whom 

37.  who 

38.  whom 

39.  who 

40.  who 

41.  whom 

42.  who 

43.  who 

44.  whom 

45.  who 


18 


THE  WAVERLY  PRESS 

BALTIMORE,  UoS.  Ao 


YB  36445 


54!!H4 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


